Carro Armato Leggero M3A3. Illustrations by Godzilla funded by our Patreon Campaign.
Italian Republic (1949-Mid-1950s)
Light Tank – Unknown Number Operated
The Light Tank M3, produced by the United States starting in 1941, was delivered to the Esercito Italiano (English: Italian Army) in the late 1940s. The Esercito Italiano, having been reconstituted after the previous Regio Esercito (English: Royal Italian Army) was essentially dissolved during the Second World War, had an immediate need for modern vehicles in the new context of the Cold War. The new army received an unknown but small number of M3A3s, which were used by both mechanized cavalry units and infantry. The Italian designation was Carro Armato Leggero M3A3.
Two M3A3 Light Tank used by Esercito Italiano.
Source: Gli autoveicoli da combattimento dell’esercito italiano
Italy and its Armed Forces after the Second World War
The Kingdom of Italy, later the Italian Republic from 2nd June 1946, emerged from the Second World War as a defeated and devastated nation, stripped of all its colonies and some territories (Istria, the city of Rijeka, and certain areas along the border with France) following the Paris Peace Treaty of 1947.
The Italian army was greatly reduced and temporarily renamed Esercito di Transizione (English: Transitional Army). In 1947, the Esercito Italiano could amass a maximum of 140,000 to 150,000 personnel to maintain public order in a divided country. Italy was plagued by numerous riots, and in Sicily, the issue of brigandage persisted. This was preceded until 1946 by the actions of the Esercito Volontario per l’Indipendenza della Sicilia (English: Volunteer Army for the Independence of Sicily).
However, the Esercito Italiano was by no means prepared to face a potential invasion by communist forces coming from Yugoslavia.
From 1948, due to the dire political situation in Europe, Italian military commands began to approach the United States for the provision of arms and equipment, which were sorely lacking in the Italian armed forces. Through the Mutual Defense Assistance Program, the United States sent aid to the Italian armed forces totaling over $44 million between 1948 and 1949. In the following two years, 1950-51, this figure rose to $360 million. The aid allocated to the Esercito Italiano consisted of light weapons, spare parts, vehicles, and more.
Photo taken on 4th November 1953 at the barracks of the 1° Reggimento ‘Granatieri di Sardegna’ (English: 1st Regiment) in Rome, during the anniversary of the Italian victory in the First World War. The sergeant in the foreground is holding a US M1 Carbine. The radio equipment is probably also of American origin.
Source: Andrea Viotti e Stefano Ales
History of the Vehicle
With the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939, the US Army became highly invested in tank development. In May 1940, the Americans put the Light Tank M2 into production, which quickly became outdated. Consequently, they developed the new M3, which featured increased armor protection.
From March 1941 to September 1943, a total of 13,859 Light Tank M3s were produced in three versions (M3, M3A1, and M3A3), and these were also supplied to other belligerent countries. By September 1945, the United Kingdom had received 5,473 M3s, the Soviet Union had gotten 1,676, and another 1,926 were distributed to other nations.
The vehicle saw its first combat use on the North African theater of operations with the British Army in the summer of 1942. The British appreciated its ease of use so much that they nicknamed it ‘Honey’. However, it was not highly regarded as a combat vehicle and, by late 1942, its role shifted to reconnaissance duties.
The Light Tank M3 underwent improvements over time and was upgraded with two versions. The A1 version, produced from May 1942, featured an improved turret. The A3 version, produced from September 1942, included hull improvements and a wider turret to accommodate the installation of a radio.
In September 1943, the vehicle ceased production and was replaced by the Light Tank M5. However, it continued to serve until the end of the war and remained operational in many nations even after the conflict.
Service in Esercito Italiano
The first M3A3 tanks, named by the Italians Carri Armati Leggeri M3A3 (English: Light Tanks M3A3), were delivered to the Esercito Italiano in 1949.
The Carri Armati M3A3 were assigned to the Scuola di Cavalleria Blindata (English: Armored Cavalry School), which was established in 1948 starting from the former Scuola di Autoblindismo (English: Armored Cars School). The tanks were allocated to two formations, labeled as ‘A’ and ‘B’, and were utilized by the armored cavalry regiments. These regiments contained a light tank squadron, each equipped with 18 Carri Armati M3A3.
Carro Armato M3A3 of the Divisione di Fanteria ‘Granatieri di Sardegna’ (English: Infantry Division) during a public exhibition.
Source: Storia Militare Dossier n. 24
In 1949, the United Nations General Assembly decided to assign Somalia, a former Italian colonial territory administered by the British since 1941, to the Italians as a trust territory to prepare the country for independence. Italian administration lasted from 1950 until 1960, when Somalia gained full independence.
Some Carri Armati M3A3 were assigned to the Corpo di Sicurezza (English: Security Corps) stationed in Somalia from 1949 to 1956, as part of the Amministrazione Fiduciaria Italiana in Somalia (English: Italian Trusteeship Administration in Somalia). A total of 20 Carri Armati M3A3 were sent to equip four tank platoons, each with five Carri Armati M3A3, assigned to the four armored cavalry squadrons deployed in Somalia:
The 1° Squadrone Blindato ‘Genova’ (English: 1st Armored Squadron) was based in Baidoa
The 2° Squadrone Blindato ‘Novara’ ( English: 2nd Armored Squadron) in Galcaio
The 3° Squadrone Blindato ‘Piemonte’ (English: 3rd Armored Squadron) in Belet Uen
The 4° Squadrone Blindato ‘Gorizia’ ( English: 4th Armored Squadron) in Mogadishu.
Deployment of the four armored cavalry squadrons deployed to Somalia.
Source: rassegnastampamilitare.files.wordpress.com modified by author
On 14th June 1950, two Carri Armati M3A3 from the 3° Squadrone Blindato ‘Piemonte’ were sent to rescue five American passengers from a plane that had crashed around 100 km from Belet Uen.
In 1951, the squadrons were cut down to only two, and, after July 1951, all Carri Armati M3A3 tanks were consolidated into the 1a Compagnia Carristi della Somalia (English: 1st Tank Company of Somalia), consisting of a command platoon and two regular platoons, each with six Carri Armati M3A3. The remaining eight tanks were held in reserve. Since there was no military conflict in Somalia during the Italian trusteeship, these vehicles did not see action.
Carro Armato Leggero M3A3 landing on a beach in Mogadishu.
Source: Vincenzo Meleca
The Italian authorities quickly realized that the Carro Armato M3A3 had become completely outdated. Even as early as an October 1950, a document from the Command of the Brigata Corazzata ‘Ariete’ (English: Armored Brigade) stated that the Carro Armato M3A3 used in the armored cavalry regiments had become obsolete and needed to be replaced with a vehicle armed with at least a 75 mm cannon. By the mid-1950s, all Carri Armati M3A3 had been withdrawn from service and replaced by the M24 Chaffee.
Carro Armato M3A3 while being loaded on a ship bound for Somalia.
Source: Storia Militare Dossier n. 24
Other Versions
Reconnaissance
The Esercito Italiano also utilized the Carro Armato M3A3 reconnaissance variant. This version lacked a turret and was armed with either a .303 Browning M1919 machine gun or a .50 Browning M2 in a ball mount, protected by a metal shield, along with another .303 machine gun in a casemate.
This reconnaissance version was used by the Esercito Italiano as a reconnaissance vehicle in the reconnaissance platoons of tank battalions, as well as by the cavalry and the Bersaglieri units. It is unclear if these were separate vehicles supplied by Italy’s allies, or if these were converted from the previously received M3A3 light tanks that had been withdrawn.
This variant had a fairly long service life, and only in the late 1950s was it replaced as a reconnaissance vehicle in tank battalions by the M24 Chaffee. In 1963, a decision was made to repurpose them as radio vehicles.
Carro Armato M3A3 reconnaissance, armed with .50 Browning M2, used by Brigata Corazzata ‘Ariete’ in 1954. Note an Italian M47 Patton behind it.
Source: Gli autoveicoli da combattimento dell’esercito italiano
Conclusion
The Carro Armato Leggero M3A3 was certainly already obsolete by the late 1940s and was primarily used as a stopgap by the Esercito Italiano in anticipation of its replacement with a more modern and suitable vehicle.
Its main actual use was in Somalia, where it performed decently, but for the most part, it had become ineffective in other contexts.
Carro Armato Leggero M3A3. Illustrations by Godzilla funded by our Patreon Campaign.Carro Armato Leggero M3A3 reconnaissance. Illustrations by Godzilla funded by our Patreon Campaign.
Nicola Pignato and Filippo Cappellano Gli autoveicoli da combattimento dell’Esercito Italiano. Volume terzo (1945-1955) Roma 2007
Andrea Viotti Struttura, uniformi e distintivi dell’Esercito Italiano 1947 – 1970. Tomo I Roma 2007
Vincenzo Meleca Il Corpo di Sicurezza della Somalia
Filippo Cappellano, Fabrizio Esposito and Daniele Guglielmi Storia Militare Dossier n. 24 ‘Mezzi corazzati e blindati dell’Esercito Italiano 1945-2012. 1a Parte’ Parma 2016
Leopoldo Nuti L’Esercito Italiano nel secondo dopo guerra 1945-1950 Roma 1989
Lorenzo Sebesta I programmi di aiuto militare nella politica americana per l’Europa. L’esperienza italiana 1948-1952 in ‘Italia Contemporanea’ n. 173, December 1988
M3 Light Tank in Hungarian Service. Illustrations by the illustrious Godzilla funded by our Patreon Campaign.
Kingdom of Hungary (1942)
Light Tank – 4 Operated
During the Second World War, tank warfare played a significant role on various fronts, and all involved countries faced numerous challenges in terms of tank production and utilization. Hungary, being a smaller player, had limited industrial capacity and resources compared to major powers, like Germany or the Soviet Union. This led to their reliance on foreign exports and captured equipment to build and sustain their tank forces. The war with the Soviets especially took a great toll on the weak Hungarian tank formations. Still, war often presents opportunities to capture enemy equipment and the Hungarians occasionally did so. In 1942, they managed to acquire four American-supplied M3 light tanks. As these were captured in good condition, they were pressed into service by the Hungarian 1st Armored Division.
Following the end of the First World War, Hungary was stripped of most of its territories. It was a shattered country that began a slow path of rebuilding its economy and army. The Magyar Honvédség (Eng. Hungarian Army) was particularly keen to one day take back some of its lost territories. But, for that, it would need to rebuild and rearm its military forces. Armored formations were also needed. Their development was slowed down by various factors, not to mention the fact that Hungary was actually prohibited by the Treaty of Trianon (signed on 4th June 1920) from developing and using tanks and other armored vehicles. Nevertheless, during the mid-1930s, they purchased over 100 Italian CV.33 fast tanks, known in Hungarian service as 35M Ansaldo. In addition, the Hungarians obtained a license from Sweden for the production of the L-60 light tank, which would be known in Hungary as the Toldi. From April 1940 to December 1942, 190 such vehicles would be locally produced
The light 35M Ansaldo was one of the more numerous initial Hungarian armored vehicles. Despite being obsolete, due to a lack of anything better, they saw action against the Soviets in 1941 and a few remained in use up to the end of the war. Source: Pinterest
While the Hungarians were not eager to wage war with the Soviets, they nevertheless joined the Axis forces during Operation Barbarossa. The Hungarians officially declared war on the USSR on 27th June, after Soviet air raids into Hungary occurred the previous day. For the Invasion of the Soviet Union, the Hungarians could muster 81 Toldis and 60 35M Ansaldos. By the end of 1941, nearly all of these were lost either in combat or due to mechanical breakdowns.
The Toldi was another light tank design that was present in some numbers prior to the war with the Soviets in 1941. Source: Magyar Pancel
In 1942, the Honvéd tried to rebuild its shattered armored formations, but given the raging war in Europe, purchasing new equipment was impossible. To make matters even harder, the Hungarian High Command was hard-pressed by the Germans to send additional forces to the Eastern Front. Despite German promises of modern equipment, the Hungarians were instead supplied with 102-108 Panzer 38(t) (known in Hungarian service as the T-38) and 22 better-armed Panzer IV Ausf. F1. These vehicles were allocated to the 30th Tank Regiment from the 1st Armored Division, which was part of the Hungarian 2nd Army.
Military field exercise involving Hungarian armored vehicles prior to the start of the military operations on the Eastern Front in 1942. In front are the T-38s, while there are anti-tank/aircraft Nimróds in the back. All the way back, a few Toldis are also visible. Source: Pinterest
The majority of the Hungarian 2nd Army was engaged in the advance toward the city of Stalingrad, Operation Blau (Eng. Operation Blue), in May 1942. The 1st Armored Division’s initial position was in the Uryv-Pokrovka, Storozhevoye area, on the western banks of the Don River. Its first orders were to crush a Soviet bridgehead defended by the 130th Tank Brigade, which was part of the 14th Tank Corps. The Hungarian attack began on the 18th of July. During the following battle, the Hungarians managed to push back the Soviets, inflicting heavy losses on them. It is here that the Hungarians encountered the M3 light tank for the first time.
In 1942, the Soviets pressed American supplied M3 light tanks into service. The Hungarians managed to capture a few vehicles intact and put them into service against their former owners. Source: B. Adam, E. Miklos, S. GyulaA Magyar Királyi Honvédség külföldi gyártású páncélos harcjárművei 1920-1945
The M3 Light Tank
The M3 Light Tank was designed in 1940 to replace the older and outdated M2 tanks that were in service with the American armored forces. The M3 had many improvements over the M2, including thicker armor, stronger vertical volute spring suspension (VVSS) with a bigger rear idler wheel, increased speed, and improved firepower consisting of four 7.62 mm machine guns and a 3.7 cm cannon. The first series was powered by the gasoline-fueled (petrol) Continental seven-cylinder four-cycle radial aircraft engine. After 1942, a new four-stroke diesel radial Guiberson A-1020 engine was used. It had a crew of four (driver, driver assistant, gunner, and commander). From March 1941 to August 1942, some 5,811 tanks with petrol engines and 1,285 with diesel engines were built. The much improved M3A1 version was produced from April 1942 onwards. The first batches of M3A1 tanks were built using riveted armor, but later models had welded armor. Some changes were made, including an improved turret design (the small commander’s cupola was removed) with two hatches, a reduction of machine guns to three on later-built vehicles, and a turret basket.
Soon after the M3A1, a new model, the M3A3, was made due to the poorly designed frontal armor and small fuel capacity of the first versions. The front and side armor of the Stuart M3A3 were angled and the front hatches for the driver and his assistant were replaced by new overhead ones. Due to the extra internal space that the Stuart M3A3 now had, it was possible to increase the fuel capacity. This version was produced until August 1943, with a total of 3,427 vehicles being built.
The M3 series saw extensive operational service throughout the war on many different fronts. The USA also supplied the Stuart series to other nations through Lend-Lease, including the British Empire, the USSR, Brazil, China, France, the Netherlands, and many other Latin American nations.
The Soviet Union was completely unprepared for the Axis invasion in 1941. While its armies managed to stop the enemy near Moscow and stabilize the frontline by the end of 1942, they did so at a huge cost in men and materials. Prior to the war, the Soviets had the largest tank forces in the world, with thousands upon thousands of tanks of various types. By the end of 1941, these had been largely lost and the Soviets were in desperate need of more tanks. Luckily for them, the Western Allies agreed to help the Soviets by sending large quantities of military aid, including various types of tanks. One of the first shipments, including M3 light tanks, reached the Soviet port of Murmansk in late December 1941. According to S.J. Zaloga (Soviet Lend-Lease Tanks Of World War II), some 1,232 M3 light tanks reached the Soviet Union during the war.
While the M3 was rather obsolete by 1942 war standards in Europe, it was still a welcome addition to the Soviets that employed them against the Axis invaders. Notice the M3 Lee on the left of this picture, also supplied through Lend Lease. Source: https://www.reddit.com/media?url=https%3A%2F%2Fi.redd.it%2Fyxbzyhne9ua21.jpg
In Hungarian Service
The first combat action of the 1st Armored Division against the Soviet western Don bank bridgeheads was generally successful for the Hungarians. Despite the fact that the core firepower of this unit was made up of Panzer 38(t) tanks, the few Panzer IVs were more than welcome additions. Together with other Hungarian armored vehicles, anti-tank guns, hand grenades, and magnetic mines, they managed to take out 35 Soviet tanks. Not all of these vehicles were destroyed, as some were abandoned and captured intact. This included the new M3 light tank, with the Hungarians managing to capture 4 working vehicles.
A side view of one of the first M3 light tanks captured. The Hungarians did not make any modifications to these vehicles, only added military markings to help distinguish them from enemy vehicles, at least in theory. This particular vehicle was sent back to Hungary and was given to the Military Technical Institute for testing and evaluation. Source: Tanks Of Hitler’s Eastern Allies 1941-45
When Hungary captured these M3 light tanks in 1942, they seized an opportunity to bolster their armored forces. While these tanks might not have been as powerful or heavily armored as some other tanks of the time, they still added valuable capabilities to the Hungarian 1st Armored Division. Three tanks were reused by the 1st Armored Division, while one vehicle was sent back to Hungary for testing and evaluation. The use of captured tanks is always limited by the availability of spare parts, ammunition, and technical knowledge, and the Hungarian M3s were not an exception.
Not much is known about their precise use by the Hungarians from this point on. At least one was allocated to the 1st Armored Signal Battalion of the division. The remaining M3s were used as recovery vehicles, towing damaged Panzer38(t) tanks. Due to a general lack of armored vehicles, the Hungarians could not spare any of their own tanks for this role. The captured M3s were a welcome addition to their meager arsenal. Whether they saw real combat action is unclear in the sources. Given that, in the surviving photographs, their armament seems functional, it is likely that, at some point, they saw some action if there was any ammunition available. Their final fate is unknown, but they were all likely lost by the end of 1942.
This vehicle was part of the 1st Armored Signal Battalion. What is interesting about it was the use of large white cross markings which were officially adopted for use by the Hungarian Army after 1944. Source: https://www.worldwarphotos.info/gallery/usa/tanks/m3_m5/hungarian-m3a1-stuart/This M3 was used to tow damaged Panzer38(t) tanks. Given the light weight of these tanks, the M3 would be easily capable of fulfilling this task. Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/75013150029609448/At some point in the war all four vehicles were lost either being destroyed or abandoned due to lack of spare parts. Source: Unknown
Conclusion
The few captured M3 Light Tanks did not give any great benefit to the Hungarian Army. While having a good general design, the M3 was becoming obsolete by 1942 standards. They were arguably better than the early Hungarian Toldis, but fewer in number and could not be used for long. Still, their role as recovery vehicles was invaluable given that the Hungarians lacked such vehicles. Every tank that was salvaged could be repaired and returned to action, and for a country that could not adequately cover its losses, this was very important. Overall, the use of captured equipment like the M3 light tanks by Hungary exemplifies the resourcefulness and adaptability that smaller nations had to demonstrate during the war in order to make the most of their limited capabilities in the face of larger and more industrially powerful adversaries.
M3 Light Tank in Hungarian Service. Illustrations by the illustrious Godzilla funded by our Patreon Campaign.
Light Tank, M3 Specifications
Dimensions
Length 5.03 m, Width 2.52 m, Height 2.57 m
Total weight, battle ready
14.7 t
Crew
4 (driver, driver’s assistant, gunner and commander)
Propulsion
Continental W-670-9A
Speed
58 km/h, 32 km/h (cross-country)
Range
217 km
Armament
37 mm M5 gun, with up to five 7.62 mm machine guns
Armor
10-38 mm
Sources
P. Mujzer (2017) Hungarian Armored Forces in World War II, Kagero
C. Bescze (2007) Magyar Steel Hungarian Armour in WW II, STRATUS.
B. Adam, E. Miklos, S. Gyula (2006) A Magyar Királyi Honvédség külföldi gyártású páncélos harcjárművei 1920-1945, Petit R
S. J. Zaloga (1999) M3 and M5 Stuart Light Tank 1940-45, Osprey Publishing
S.J. Zaloga (2017) Soviet Lend-Lease Tanks Of World War II, Osprey Publishing
S. J. Zaloga (2913) Tanks Of Hitler’s Eastern Allies 1941-45, Osprey Publishing
P. Chamberlain and C. Ellis (1977) Axis Combat Vehicles, Arco Publishing Company
B. Adam, E. Miklos, S. Gyula (2006) A Magyar Királyi Honvédség külföldi gyártású páncélos harcjárművei 1920-1945, Petit Real
The dozer-equipped M24 after having been through the modernization, fitted with a new engine and with the .50cal machine-gun now brought to the front of the turret so it can be used by the commander from the opened hatch.
Oriental Republic of Uruguay (1957/1958-2019)
Light Tank – 17 Purchased
Uruguay, like several other countries in South America, has been a traditional customer of US military hardware. In Uruguay’s case, this first example were 40 M3A1 Stuart light tanks delivered in 1944-1945. In the years following the Second World War and the Korean War, obsolete armored vehicles which were no longer deemed as required for the current situation of the US military were given as military aid to US allies, particularly in Latin America. It was in this context that Uruguay would receive 17 M24 Chaffee light tanks in 1957-1958, which would proceed to remain in service within the Uruguayan Army all the way to 2019, an impressive 61 years of service.
Three M24 are lined in front of a Grizzly APC during army exercises in 2015. Uruguay was the last country to retire the M24, as well as likely the user operating the type for the longest time, introducing the tank in 1957-1958. Source: facebook
The first armored vehicles of Uruguay
Uruguay is located on the east coast of South America, between the two largest countries of the continent, Argentina and Brazil. It has traditionally maintained cordial relations with both. At the same time, in the decades following the repression of the Blanco revolt in 1904, Uruguay managed to evolve into what was at the time one of the more democratic and stable nations of South America. Though this was interrupted at times, notably with a coup in 1934, Uruguay remained one of the more prosperous and peaceful nations of the continent. As such, the need for a large fleet of armored vehicles was somewhat wasted on the South American nation. The first armored vehicles of Uruguay were a small fleet of three Citroën P28 armored cars received in 1933-1934 used by the Guardia Metropolitana Uruguayana, a unit of the Uruguayan police located in Montevideo. For a decade, these would remain the only Uruguayan armored vehicles, before Uruguay’s involvement in the Second World War alongside much of Latin America, on the side of the United States, resulted in the small country receiving a fleet of 40 M3A1 Stuart light tanks in 1944-1945.
Uruguayan M3A1 Stuarts. The vehicles would only be phased out of service in October of 2001, which is already a fairly outstanding and long service for this American light tank. Source: facebook
These tanks would be the most modern armored vehicles of Uruguay in the following years. By the late 1950s, they were becoming fairly obsolete even by South American standards though. While the Stuart was still very commonly used by other South American armies, notably Brazil, somewhat more potent vehicles were also commonplace. Argentina, for example, operated a considerable fleet of Sherman tanks, including some Fireflies of British origin. At the same time, with the conclusion of the Korean War, WW2-dated American surplus armor was exceptionally cheap.
Introducing Chaffees
In 1957-1958, Uruguay purchased a complement of 17 M24 Chaffee light tanks from the United States military. Deliveries were completed on September 30th, 1958. This was part of the American Military Assistance Program (MAP), under which the US provided military equipment to aligned nations within the context of the Cold War. These tanks did not come from the mainland US but were instead delivered from US Army stocks in Korea. A considerable amount of spare parts were likely delivered along with these, as well as in the coming years. Along with the Chaffees, Uruguay received a Sherman-based M74 Armored Recovery Vehicle.
Introduced by the US military in the later stages of the Second World War, the M24 was a potent light tank fitted with a 75 mm M6 gun, which featured considerable firepower against infantry and, by WW2 standards, even other armored vehicles outside of heavy tanks and the heaviest medium tanks. The tank was mobile and fairly easy to maintain and incorporated an M2 Browning 12.7 mm/.50 cal machine gun on top of the turret (it was to be fired in an anti-aircraft role by a man standing on the engine deck) as well as two .30-06 M1919A4 machine guns, one coaxial and one in the hull, operated by the assistant driver, who also operated the radio. With a crew of five, incorporating a driver, assistant-driver, a commander, a gunner, and a loader, the tank featured an effective division of tasks. All of these made it a fairly attractive light tank for internal security purposes. Although the more modern M41 featured considerably superior anti-armor capacities, this was not particularly important in the context of a South American country neighboring other countries which mostly operated other WW2 American tanks, and maintained cordial relations with Uruguay.
The tanks were delivered to the Batallón de Infantería Nº 13 (ENG: 13th Infantry Battalion), founded in 1904. After receiving the M24s, the regiment was renamed to Batallón de Infantería Blindado Nº 13 (ENG: 13th Armored Infantry Battalion). They formed the Compañía Blindada de Tanques (Armored Tanks Company), formally created on 12 July 1958. Two tanks formed a command section while the remaining 15 were divided into three platoons of five.
An M24 in service of the Uruguayan army during the first years, likely in the late 1950s or early 1960s. The vehicle features the Uruguayan army roundel and retains a unicolor camouflage, likely the original US Olive Drab. Source: uruguaymilitaria.comAnother Uruguayan Chaffee during manoeuvers early in the vehicle’s service in Uruguay; the vehicle still bears the large cocard and unicolour camouflage scheme. Source: facebook
The tanks appear to first have been used in a unicolor camouflage, likely olive drab. They received Uruguayan army roundels, comprising a blue roundel in the center, circled by white and then further circled by blue, with a red bar going through the roundel diagonally. Later, likely in the 1960s, the tanks were given a four-color scheme, comprising green, yellow, brown and a dark brown bordering on black. They also retained the same roundel and featured the number of the tank, from 01 to 17. The vehicle’s registration number ran from E-3001 to E-3017.
At some point, likely in the 1960s, one of the tanks was also fitted with a dozer blade designed by Alférez Otto Gossweiler (Alférez being a junior military rank in the armies of several Spanish and Portuguese’-speaking militaries). This dozer blade was mounted on vehicle n°16, one of the two vehicles belonging to the command section, which makes sense as a vehicle given special tasks that could be required by any part of the battalion. This singular vehicle appears to have retained the dozer blade ever since.
The Uruguayan Army M24 dozer during a parade. Source: live war thunder
Uruguayan Army service
The first months of the M24’s service in the Uruguayan Army were marked by several instances of ceremonial use in foreign presidential visits to Uruguay, during which the M24 would perform a parade in the streets of Montevideo, the Uruguayan capital, often in the company of the M3A1 Stuarts which were still retained in service by this point.
Uruguayan Army M24s during the April 1958 parade, their first public appearance in Uruguay. Source: uruguaymilitaria.com
The first of such instances was a parade on 7th April 1958, on the occasion of the visit of Argentinian President Arturo Frondizi. This was the first public appearance of the M24 in Uruguay, mere months or weeks after the vehicles were delivered. They performed a parade again during US President Dwight Eisenhower’s visit to Uruguay on 2nd to 3rd March 1960, alongside M3A1s.
Uruguayan Army M24s during the 1960 parade for the visit of US President Eisenhower. The tanks feature a numbering scheme seemingly not seen on other photos, in which their number is present in a white circle on the mudguard and lower turret side. Source: uruguaymilitaria.com
The 1960s were a decade of turmoil in Uruguay, with an economic crisis caused by struggling Uruguayan exports causing significant unrest and political uproar. This led to the rise of an armed revolutionary left-wing movement known as the Tupamaros or MLN-T (Movimiento de Liberación Nacional-Tupamaros, Tupamaros National Liberation Movement) which would progressively grow more violent. In 1968, the Uruguayan president, Jorge Pachero, declared a state of emergency that would see the military largely deployed in the streets. The following president, Juan María Bordaberry, would continue authoritarian policies and suspend civil liberties. In June 1973, he dissolved the Uruguayan congress and became a de facto dictator sponsored by the Uruguayan military.
During this time, the Tupamaros fought in an urban guerilla war against the Uruguayan military. The M24s were regularly employed in the streets as a show of force, being a very intimidating presence to potential insurgents. The dozer-blade-equipped tank, notably, would likely have proved effective in clearing out barricades. It has been theorized that the vehicle was fitted with this device during the era of struggle against the Tupamaros for this exact reason. By mid-1972, the Tupamaros had largely been defeated, killed, captured or forced into exile, as many other Uruguayans had been. The Uruguayan dictatorship would maintain itself all the way to 1985 however, engaging in repressive policies which, while often overshadowed by some employed by other regimes, such as Augusto Pinochet’s Chile, would see a large number of Uruguayans exiled, and many assassinations performed against political opponents, most of which actually took place outside of Uruguay’s borders. The M24s would continue to regularly be used for intimidation purposes during this era, though Uruguay would also purchase more modern tanks in 1982, buying 22 M41 Walker Bulldog light tanks from Belgium.
Late 1980s modernization
In 1984, elections were finally held, seeing Uruguay return to civilian rule from this point onward. Though amnesty for human rights abusers would be declared, Uruguay would move back towards being one of the more democratic and stable countries in South America in the next decades, which would culminate in a former Tupamaros, who had spent fifteen years in prison, José Mujica, being elected president in 2009.
At the same time as Uruguay was transitioning back to democracy, the M24s the country had now operated for about thirty years were becoming increasingly obsolete, and their engines, most significantly, worn out. The original M24’s twin Cadicall 44T24 engines, producing 220 hp, were simply worn out by more than 30 years of active military service of the M24s.
Therefore, it was decided to switch the powerplant of the tanks. For this purpose, the Brazilian company Bernardini was contracted. Some sources refer to this modernization as having occurred in 1983, while some others mention 1987. The M24s were refitted with the Saab-Scania DN11 220-230 hp engine, a Swedish industrial truck engine manufactured in Brazil. A turbocharged version of the same engine family, the DS11, was notably fitted in the Brazilian X1 series of light tanks. This was a commercially available engine for which parts could be very easily sourced. It was coupled with a GAV 762 automatic gearbox.
This amazing rear view of the M24s, with a rainbow in the backgrounds, gives a good view onto the vehicle’s engine decks, largely remodeled to accommodate the Scania engine, with the two large cooling fans being notable Source: facebookTwo M24s, one firing its gun, during exercises in 2016. The top view gives another good angle on the cooling fans. Source: facebookThis photo of an M24 Chaffee and a BMP-1 in an Uruguayan training facility gives a nice view of the Chaffee’s new engine deck. Source: bmpvsu.ruAerial footage of Uruguayan M24 and BVP-1s during the 111th anniversary of Batallón de Infantería Blindado Nº 13 in November 2015, giving a good view of the new engine deck of the Chaffees. Source: youtube
Other modernizations performed around the same time, though not necessarily by the Brazilian company, included refitting the M24 with modern radio equipment, fitting an ammunition-ready rack in the turret, and reboring the M1919A4 machine guns to fire 7.62×51 mm NATO ammunition. The position of the M2 Browning was also changed, with it now put further forward on the turret. Now, it could be operated by the commander reaching out of his cupola, rather than by a man standing on the engine deck. Some sources refer to the upgraded M24 as M24UR, with UR standing for Uruguayano Repotenciado (ENG: Uruguayan Repowered). However, it is unknown if there was anything official about this designation, or if it is colloquial.
An M24 during exercises in 2015. The vehicles have, since the refit, sometimes appeared with a sort of makeshift gun “travel lock” which appears to mostly consist of cords. Source: facebook
Since the modernization
At some point following their modernization, the M24s were given a new camouflage scheme, resembling the American woodland scheme, with a dark brown/black, a lighter brown, and a dark green color. The roundel was removed. In some photos, the number of the vehicle is retained in a dark color on the turret side, while on some others, no vehicle number is to be found.
An M24 during exercises, seemingly in 2017. This vehicle features the number in dark letters on the turret sides. Source: facebookUruguayan Army servicemen stand in front of M24s with camouflage nets in 2017. Source: facebookUruguayan M24s and crews during a military review, likely 1990s or early 2000s. Source: facebook
The 1990s saw the 13th Armored Infantry Battalion, in which the M24 were operated, receive a fleet of fifteen BVP-1s purchased from the Czech Republic. 10 were delivered in 1996, with a further five in 1998, and three vehicles for spare parts in 1999. These more modern infantry fighting vehicles would be operated alongside the M24s within the battalion’s fleet during the coming decades. Other purchases from the 1990s include, for example, Tiran-5Sh main battle tanks and 2S1 self-propelled artillery pieces.
Crewmen srand for a review; one can observe the BVP-1s behind the Chaffees in the background, an original mix of American 1940s and Soviet 1960s vehicle operated by Batallón de Infantería Blindado Nº 13 in the 90s, 2000s, and 2010s. Source: bmpvsu.ru
Uruguayan Army training alongside a Bell UH-1 helicopter in 2013. Source: facebookUruguayan service men stand in front of a BVP-1 and an M24 Chaffee during exercises in June 2014. Source: bmpvsu.ru
A video of the ceremony of the 111th anniversary of Batallón de Infantería Blindado Nº 13, including some drone footage.
An Uruguayan M24 operates alongside Cougars, circa 2018. Source: facebookUruguayan army personnel performing welding for repairs of an M24’s part during some of the last days of the Uruguayan Chaffees in service, in early November 2018. Source: facebook
Some rumors stated that the M24 were retired around 2012 or 2013, but this is nothing more than a misconception. The process of retiring the M24’s started as early as the 4th of June 2011, when it was announced that Brazil would donate 25 M41C’s to Uruguay. These M41C’s were at this point already withdrawn from Brazilian service and served as parade tanks or were delivered at maintenance bases until they were decommissioned. Brazil initially offered 29 M41C’s, but 25 would be selected in the end by Uruguay. It was decided somewhere before the 24th of April 2012, that the M41C’s would be sent to the 13th Armored Infantry Battalion, effectively announcing the imminent retirement of the M24.
From this moment on, the donation process would take another 6 years until it was finally completed. The United States had to give permission for the donation, which it gave on the 20th of May 2014. During these six years, the crews and the 13th Armored Infantry Battalion started training and reorganizing in preparation for the arrival of the M41C, partially by training on the M41A1UR. The first M41C was finally delivered on the 12th of December 2018, receiving a total of 15 that day, and the final M41C was delivered on the 14th of December. The 13th Armored Infantry Battalion announced the retirement of the M24UR from their combat unit on December 18th, 2018. It was officially retired on the 18th of July 2019, marking the official end of the M24’s 61- 62 years of service with the Uruguayan Army and the 13th Armored Infantry Battalion.
Uruguayan M41Cs in November 2019; a BVP-1, but also an M24, are visible in the background. Source: facebook
It appears that, however, three were retained for ceremonial uses, in order to, for example, lead the battalion’s vehicles in parades. As for other M24s, it is likely many will become gate guardians at various Uruguayan Army bases, as a number of previous Uruguayan armored vehicles already have. A photo dated from March 2021 indeed shows two M24s in the background some sort of exams undertaken for their former battalion under a tent. Uruguay is notably keen on preserving armored vehicles, with even one of their three P28s still in existence. If any others are left, it is likely they would provoke some considerable interest from museums and collectors around the world.
Personnel of Batallón de Infantería Blindado Nº 13 take exams in March of 2021. Two M24s are visible in the background. Source: facebook
Conclusion – The last M24s in the world
By the time they were retired, in 2018, Uruguay’s M24 Chaffees were the last tanks of the type in use in the world. Though retaining WW2 tanks for a particularly long time is not uncommon in South America – Paraguay still counts Shermans and Stuarts in its inventory – the Uruguayan Chaffees are notable in the sense that they have remained operational for a truly extended period of time without any major breaks, and indeed within the same unit. Indeed, operating in the same unit for 60 years, the 13th Armored Infantry Battalion’s M24 Chaffees are a serious contender for the longest continuously serving armored vehicles with one unit.
Camouflaged M24 Chaffees parked in front of a sunset during the 2016 exercises. Though they would soon go out of active service, the fact these tanks even served for so long – and appeared to remain operational through the decades – is a testimony to the quality of Uruguayan crews and mechanics operating the tanks. Source: facebook
While the vehicles are no longer operational in Uruguay, it appears they will continue to feature in years to come for ceremonial and decorative use – a well deserved honor after seeing generations of tankmen in the same light tank.
An Uruguayan M24 in the late 1950s, in Olive Drab camouflage, sporting the Uruguayan army roundel and the rear-mounted .50cal machine-gunThe dozer-equipped M24 after having been through the modernization, fitted with a new engine and with the .50cal machine-gun now brought to the front of the turret so it can be used by the commander from the opened hatch.The same M24 dozer in the later, “woodlands-style” camouflage adopted by the Uruguayan military.A standard M24UR with the new camouflage type and stowage on the turret sidesAn M24 with camouflage nets. All illustrations created by Ardhya Anargha, funded by our Patreon Campaign
United States of Brazil/Federative Republic of Brazil (1944-1972)
Armored Reconnaissance Vehicle – 54 Purchased
With World War 2 in full swing and the United States at war with the Axis, the United States sought to secure its position on the American continent. Through multiple ways, the United States would successfully influence all the American countries to either side with the Allies or stay neutral throughout the conflict. Brazil was one of these American countries which joined the side of the Allies in August 1942, partially because German submarines sank multiple Brazilian ships close to the Brazilian coast and due to Getúlio Vargas’ pragmatic rule of Brazil.
One of the realisations of the United States in their attempt to secure the American continent was that most of the equipment of the armies and infrastructure of the American countries were seriously outdated. Brazil was no exception, as it still operated five Renault FTs and 23 L3/35 in a mixed squadron. During World War 2, Brazil would acquire aid in industry, logistics, army modernisation, and equipment through Lend-Lease. The latter was also done to help deter any neutral American nation from siding with the Axis.
Among the equipment Brazil received were 54 T17 Deerhounds, making Brazil the only country to operate the T17 in regular Army units. In fact, the T17 would be Brazil’s first 6 x 6 wheeled armored fighting vehicle and began the story of 6 x 6 wheeled vehicles in Brazil which still continues to this day with the EE-9 Cascavel and the Guarani APC. Sadly, the Deerhound has become a forgotten vehicle in the United States and it would meet an equal fate in Brazil, being overshadowed by the successful and beloved M8 Greyhound.
The development of the T17 Deerhound was initiated after Spring 1941, when the British Purchasing Commission submitted their requirements for both medium and heavy armored cars which they wanted to receive as soon as possible. At the same time, the American Armored Force Board came forward with their specifications for a wheeled vehicle based on the British experience in Africa. The medium armored car was designated as T17, and both Ford and Chevorolet came forward with a design.
The Ford design is what is known as the T17 Deerhound today, with a 6 x 6 suspension system. The Chevrolet design was a 4 x 4 driven vehicle that was redesignated as T17E1 and would later be known as the Staghound. Ford’s design initially used two 90 hp Ford engines, but these were replaced with two Hercules JXD 110 HP petrol engines. Both engines used an individual transmission and linked up to a single transfer case. The T17 had, as a result, 8 forward and 2 reverse gears.
The first pilot was delivered in March 1942 but was rejected due to numerous mechanical defects and extensive failures in the axles and transmission. The second prototype would attempt to solve these issues, but would cause the vehicle’s dimensions and weight to become too excessive and it was rejected again. As a result, the contract of the T17 Deerhound was reduced to 250 vehicles. Originally meant for the British, which had named it T17 Deerhound, they rejected it as well. As a result, the 196 T17 Deerhounds were delivered to the Military Police units in the US with their guns removed, while, unknown to many, 54 T17s were delivered to Brazil through Lend-Lease.
The T17 at Aberdeen Proving Ground on December 4th 1942. Source: Armored Car – R.P. Hunnicutt
The T17 in Brazil
The story of how Brazil ended up being the only country to receive and operate the T17 Deerhound in combat units is an interesting one. It seems odd that Brazil would order a rejected platform of vehicles, regardless of any lack of materiel or perceived urgency of acquisition. It seems even more odd as the M8 Greyhound was already in service and in use. The answer to this question is that Brazil did not order the T17 Deerhound to begin with. Brazil had ordered 54 M8 Greyhounds, which supposedly arrived in Brazil with the order number of the M8 and the needed documentation. But when the Brazilians started unloading the shipment, it turned out that the ordered M8’s were T17 Deerhounds instead. This was not the only instance either, as a Brazilian archive document requesting clarification from the United States about this issue, also talked about 105 mm M3 howitzers being replaced with 75 mm M1A1’s instead.
Considering the context of the T17 Deerhound project and it being rejected, it seems to suggest that the United States deemed the allocation of M8 Greyhounds to Europe of a higher priority than supplying them to Brazil. The T17 Deerhound was then the perfect vehicle to send instead, as it was still a 6 x 6, they had 250 rejected vehicles standing around, and it was a fairly similar but overall bad vehicle compared to the M8 Greyhound. It thus seems that the United States intentionally dumped the T17 Deerhounds in Brazil.
Brazilian sources are unclear as to when Brazil received the T17 Deerhounds, as they estimate the delivery of the T17 from 1943 to 1944. What is known is that 18 T17 Deerhounds were put into service in September 1944. It would receive the local classification of Carro Blindado de Reconhecimento or CBR (English: Armored Reconnaissance vehicle). The Deerhounds would serve as both reconnaissance and command vehicles.
The T17 was delivered to 3 units, 2 were Regimento Motomecanizado’s (RMM) (English: Motomechanized Regiments) and the other was a Batalhão de Polícia do Exército (BPE) (English: Police Battalion of the Brazilian Army). The Regimento Motomecanizado’s would later be renamed and reorganized on May 17th 1946 as Regimento de Cavalaria Mecanizado (RCMec) (English: Mechanized Cavalry Regiment).
Markings would also start to be standardized around this time. From pre-1946, when they used a star in the colors of Brazil, it was replaced from 1946 to 1983 with the Cruzeiro de Sul, translated as Southern Cross. In addition, the registration of the vehicles was also standardized, with the EB10-XXX format. EB referred to Exército Brasileiro, the 10 to the type of vehicle, in this case, a reconnaissance vehicle, and the XXX (for example, 084) to which vehicle.
Drawing of the pre-1946 marking on the left, and the Cruzeiro de Sul on the right. Source: Ford M-8 Greyhound Exército Brasileiro – Surge o conceito de blindado 6×6
From November 1953, the units would be redesignated as Regimento de Reconhecimento Mecanizado (RRecMec) (English: Mechanized Reconnaissance Regiment) until about 1968-1969, after which they would be designated as RCMec again, which they maintain to this day. Since sourcing mostly refers to the RRecMec and this was the longest period in which the T17 served under this regiment designation, the RRecMec designation will be used for future chapters.
2º RRecMec
One of the regiments to receive 18 Deerhounds was the 2º RMM, stationed in the Rio Grande do Sul state, at Porto Alegre. There, they would be operated along with M3A1 Stuarts, but also with M3A1 Scout Cars and Willys Jeeps. Practically, nothing is known about the T17s which served in the 2º RRecMec, except for a single one. EB 10-084, nicknamed ‘Tuiuti’, was retired in 1970, and turned into a monument in Jaguarão in Rio Grande do Sul state. If this particular T17 still exists is unknown. This is because none of the known surviving T17s have the same registration numbers or markings. There are three Deerhounds without any markings at all, so there might be a slim chance that one of these is the ‘Tuiuti’.
The 3º RRecMec is, relatively speaking, a more documented regiment regarding the T17. 18 T17 Deerhounds were delivered to the then 3º Regimento Motomecanizado’s on September 4th 1944, stationed in Bagé in Rio Grande so Sul. There, they equipped the 3rd and 4th Esquadrão de Carros Leve (English: Light Vehicle Squadron) and served alongside 34 M3A1 Stuarts which were delivered around the same time.
T17 Deerhound of the 3º RMM during an Independence Day Parade on September 7th 1946. Note the old markings. Source: Ford M-8 Greyhound Exército Brasileiro – Surge o conceito de blindado 6×6
With the switch to the RCMEC, the Deerhound would serve under a new composition of two reconnaissance squadrons consisting of T17s, M3A1 Scout Cars, and Willys Jeeps, a Light Tank Squadron of M3A1 Stuarts, a command squadron, and a service squadron. The 18 T17s would receive the registrations from EB10-126 to 136, and from 138 to 141. A single Deerhound, thought to be used as a command Deerhound, was designated EB10-123. Interestingly, this Deerhound is thought to have been one of the final T17s in service, as it was retired in 1972.
T17 of the 3º RCMec during exercises in 1947. Source: Ford M-8 Greyhound Exército Brasileiro – Surge o conceito de blindado 6×6
1º BPE
Like with the 2º RRecMec, practically nothing is known about the service of the T17 within the BPE, which was located in Rio de Janeiro. The only thing that is known is that at least 3 T17s were delivered to the Military Police. If the BPE received 18 Deerhounds is unknown. What is known is that they used them in parades and that they were supposedly retired around the 1970s. The BPE might have been the last operator of the T17 Deerhound.
T17 Deerhounds of the BPE during an Independence Day Parade on September 7th 1966. Source: Ford M-8 Greyhound Exército Brasileiro – Surge o conceito de blindado 6×6
The Brazilian response to the T17?
Although the T17 was certainly an upgrade compared to the Renault FT or the FIAT-Ansaldo L-3, the Deerhound was not popular among the crews. The two Hercules JXD engines had to be synchronized, which was supposedly quite challenging. Because of this, the Deerhounds were usually not really usable. To make matters worse, driving the vehicle on a single-engine in order to get around the synchronization issue would damage the drive shafts. All in all, it seems that the errors which the first T17 prototype had were not really resolved or were simply unfixable because of the T17’s fundamental conception of two engines.
The transmission system of the T17 Deerhound. Source: Armored Car – R.P. Hunnicutt
Fate
The exact fate of the T17 Deerhounds is unknown. At least 4 vehicles have survived, while the fate of the rest is uncertain. According to Brazilian sources, some of the 37 mm guns were used to arm the 37 mm VBB-1 project. But this is not necessarily presented as a fact. It would not be surprising if the Brazilian engineers used these guns, considering it would have been cheaper to repurpose the guns, and the T17 was practically retired when these projects started in 1970. It is thought that the other 50 T17s have either been scrapped or used as range targets.
As far as known, only four T17 Deerhounds still exist in the world. All of these Deerhounds are in possession of Brazil, being retired vehicles from the previous three regiments. The T17s are in mixed condition, with a single vehicle being the most complete, still having both engines, but missing a turret basket. One of the four vehicles is currently being restored by the Centro de Instrução de Blindados (CIBld) (English: Armored Personnel Training Centre).
The most complete T17 is located at the Museu Militar do Comando Militar Sul in Porto Alegre Rio Grande do Sul. This T17 has the registration EB10-170. Considering the 2º RRecMec was located in Porto Alegre, and the EB10-170 is not one of the 3º RRecMec designations, it is quite likely that this Deerhound came from the 2º RRecMec. What is interesting is that the EB10-170 registration is not on all pictures of this T17, suggesting that it might have been painted on at a later date and that the registration might not have been its original registration, or of any other T17 Deerhound at all.
The T17 located at the Museu Militar do Comando Militar Sul. Source: Deerhound – Paulo Roberto Bastos and Hélio Higuchi
Another T17 was functioning as gate guardian at the 4º Batalahão de Logistica (English: 4th Logistics battalion) at Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul. This gate guardian has since been renovated by the CIBld, and is now presented at the Museu de Blindados do Centro de Instrução de Blindados in Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul. It has no registration. The hatches of this vehicle are supposedly welded shut, and as such, this vehicle has probably just received an exterior overhaul and is not in running condition.
The T17 located at the Museu de Blindados do Centro de Instrução de Blindados. Source: Museu de Blindados do Centro de Instrução de Blindados
The third T17 is located at the 1º Parque Regional Manutenção in Rio de Janeiro. Not much is known except that, between 2005 and now, it seems that either the 37 mm gun has been removed or cut off. Considering that this Deerhound is located in Rio de Janeiro, it is quite likely that this vehicle originated from the BPE.
The fourth Deerhound is located at the Parque Histórico Marechal Manuel Luís Osório in Tramandaí, Rio Grande do Sul. This vehicle also does not have any registration, but considering it is located close to Porto Alegre, it is quite likely that this Deerhound came from the 2º RRecMec.
The T17 located at the Parque Histórico Marechal Manoel Luis Osorio. Source: Parque Histórico Marechal Manoel Luis Osorio
Conclusion
The Brazilians needed to modernize their Army and the US needed to supply the Brazilian Army with new equipment to strengthen their resolve on the Allied side. The T17 Deerhound seems to have been more of an equipment dump by the US, than military-aid. It is possible that the Brazilian Army may have ordered the T17 themselves, but either way, it was not much of an improvement. The T17 was not loved by its crews, and the mistakes which had made the US reject it were not fixed or were unfixable.
This was Brazil’s first 6 x 6 and it had made Brazil practically the only country in the world to have operated the T17 in regular Army units. Sadly, the T17 Deerhound ended up with an almost equally tragic story within the Brazilian Army, as it had with the US Army. A rejected vehicle, plagued with significant issues, and most of all, overshadowed by the successful M8 Greyhound.
Illustrations
The T17 Deerhound with the pre-1946 marking. Done by Vesp.The T17 Deerhound with the Cruzeiro de Sul marking. Done by Vesp.The Tuiuti of the 2º RRecMec. Done by Vesp.The T17 located at the Parque Histórico Marechal Manoel Luis Osorio. Done by Vesp.The T17 located at the 1º Parque Regional Manutenção without its main gun. Done by Vesp.The T17 located at the 1º Parque Regional Manutenção with its main gun, and the T17 located at the Museu de Blindados do Centro de Instrução de Blindados. Done by Vesp.The T17 located at the Museu Militar do Comando Militar Sul. Done by Vesp.
Specifications (T17 Deerhound)
Dimensions (L-W-H)
5.5 meters x 2.6 meters x 2.3 meters (16.4 feet x 7.5 feet x 7.5 feet)
Total weight, combat loaded
14.5 tonnes (16 US tons)
Crew
5 (Driver, Co-driver, Commander, Gunner, Loader)
Propulsion
Two Hercules JXD 6-cylinder in-line 110 hp gasoline engine
Front upper 19 mm (0.75 inch)
Front middle 19 mm (0.75 inch)
Front lower 19 mm (0.75 inch)
Side 19 mm (0.75 inch)
Rear 12.7 mm (0.5 inch)
Top 16 to 9.5 mm (0.625-0.375 inch)
Floor 6,5 mm (0.25 inch)
Turret
Front 32 mm (1.25 inch)
Gun mantlet 25 mm (1 inch)
Sides 32 mm (1.25 inch)
Rear 32 mm (1.25 inch)
Top 19 mm (0.75 inch)
Acquired
54
Sources
Ford M-8 Greyhound Exército Brasileiro – Surge o conceito de blindado 6×6 – Expedito Carlos Stephani Bastos
Fiat-Ansaldo CV-3 35 II no Exército Brasileiro – Expedito Carlos Stephani Bastos
Extermine o Inimigo – Dennison De Oliviera
Deerhound – Paulo Roberto Bastos and Hélio Higuchi Armored Car: A history of American Wheeled Combat Vehicles – R.P. Hunnicutt
Kingdom of Norway (1946-1990s)
Light Tank – 141 Operated
The Second World War was rough for Norway. Falling to German invasion in April 1940, the country suffered 5 long years of occupation which only ended with the surrender of Nazi Germany in May 1945. Following this, Norway had to rebuild its military from the ground up. Luckily, after their surrender, the German Wehrmacht left behind vast stocks of equipment. This included rifles, machine guns, anti-tank guns, tools, and even some aircraft, all of which were adopted by the Norwegian Military (Forsvaret, Eng: “The Defence”).
A small number of tanks were also among the equipment left behind, a mix of various types of Panzer III and StuG IIIs. These were mostly of poor condition, however, so they went straight into storage. Fortunately for the Norwegian Military, the United States were keen to keep their European allies strong in the face of an increasing threat from the Soviet Union. As such, in 1946, Norway received 17 M24 Chaffees from the United States.
The Chaffee would give the Norwegian Army (Hæren) their first taste of operating a relatively modern armored vehicle, having not had a tank to operate since the single L-120 ‘Rikstanken’ of the late 1930s. Eventually, Norway would operate a total of 141 Chaffees and, through upgrades, would keep them in service until the early 1990s.
Norse Chaffee on Maneuvers in the 1950s. Photo: Pinterest
The M24 Chaffee
The M24 Chaffee, named after Army General Adna R. Chaffee, entered service in 1944, largely replacing the M3 and M5 Stuarts. It was a small tank, at 16 foot 4 inches (5.45 m) long, 9 foot 4 inches (2.84 m) wide, and 5 foot 3 inches (2.61 m) tall. It was also light at just 20.25 tons (18.37 tonnes). Armor on the vehicle was ¾ inch to 1 ½ inch (19 – 38 mm) thick. It was armed with the 75 mm Lightweight Tank Gun M6. It was operated by a 5 man crew, consisting of the commander, gunner, loader, driver and assistant driver/radio operator.
It was a very maneuverable vehicle, powered by twin Cadillac 44T24 8 cylinder petrol engines producing 220 hp combined. The transmission and drive wheels were located at the front of the vehicle. The Chaffee rolled on 5 paired roadwheels attached to a torsion bar suspension. The fifth road wheel was attached to the idler wheel at the rear of the running gear. This is because the idler was of the compensating type, meaning it was attached to the closest roadwheel by an actuating arm. When the roadwheel reacted to terrain, the idler was pushed out or pulled in, keeping constant track tension.
Armament consisted of the 75 mm Lightweight Tank Gun M6 which had a concentric recoil system (this was a hollow tube around the barrel, a space-saving alternative to traditional recoil cylinders). Variants of this gun were also used on the B-25H Mitchell Bomber, and the T33 Flame Thrower Tank prototype. The gun had a muzzle velocity of 619 m/s (2,031 ft/s) and had a maximum penetration of 109 mm. The elevation range of the gun was around -10 to +13 degrees. Secondary armament included the coaxial .30 Cal (7.62 mm) Browning M1919 Machine Gun, and the .50 Caliber (12.7 mm) M2 Browning Heavy Machine gun which was mounted on the rear of the turret roof.
Norwegian M24 Chaffee of Stridsvogneskadron Sola – the airstrip defense force based at Sola airfield. Photo: National Archives of Norway CC BY-SA 4.0
Norsk Chaffees
Norway received its first Chaffees after the Second World War, when US troops stationed in the country left the Norwegians 17 M24s when they withdrew. Further military aid came from the US under the ‘MAP’, starting in 1946. The ‘Military Aid Program’ benefited the war-ravaged countries of the Second World War by providing them the means to rebuild their military and defenses. Other countries that benefited from the MAP included France, Portugal, and Belgium, but also former enemy nations such as West Germany and Japan. The initial 1946 delivery was sent directly to Trandum leir, a Norwegian Army Camp (now closed) near Ullensaker.
Part of the M24 fleet based at Trandum in the early 1950s. Photo: digitalmuseum.no
In 1949, Norway and the West became an even more united front. In April, the North Atlantic Treaty was signed, and NATO was born with Norway a founding member. As it shared a border with the Soviet Union, it was seen as a crucial partner. With this close proximity to the potential enemy, invasion was expected. The focus of the Norwegian military at this time was defending its strategically important airfields. For this, three Dragoon Regiments were created; ‘DR 1’, ‘DR 2’ and ‘DR 3’. These were split between various airfields. These included Gardermoen, Eggemoen, Sola, Fornebu, Værnes, and Bardufoss. To give an idea of the strategic importance of some of these airports, Gardermoen was located near Oslo, the capital of Norway, and was the main base of the Luftforsvaret (Royal Norwegian Airforce). Sola, located on Norway’s south-eastern coast, was an important link with the western Allies. Værnes, located roughly in central Norway, allowed transit to the North and South of the country.
3 of the 11 M24s operated by Stridsvogneskadron Sola at Kjevik at a 1950 defense summit. Photo: Hans Thostensen, Stavanger City Archives.
Initially, the garrison forces were equipped with recycled Panzer IIIs and StuG IIIs left behind by the surrendering German forces. In Norwegian service, these were called Stridsvogn KW-III and Stormkanon KW-III, respectively. Due to a lack of available M24s, the garrison forces were equipped mostly with these aging vehicles. Thanks to the birth of NATO, however, Norway began to receive more military aid, and the number of M24 Chaffees available to the Army vastly increased. By 1951, the entire KW-III force had been replaced by the plentiful Chaffees. As a result, all airport garrison dragoon regiments were re-armed with the Chaffee*. Norway received its last Chaffee in 1955; however, MAP did not just provide tanks. Through this program, the Norwegians received 300 fighter aircraft, 8,000 vehicles of various types, 800 field guns, and 100,000 tonnes (110,200 tons) of ammunition.
*A detailed article on M24s at the Sola airstrip can be found in the Jan. 2017 issue of the Norwegian Museum Magazine
Norwegian Chaffees also had a royal connection. From 1955 to 1957, Prince Harald (now King Harald V) served in a Chaffee crew during his conscription years in the Norwegian Armed Forces.
Prince Harald stands before his M24 Chaffee in the late 1950s. Photo: Reddit
The M24s gave the Hæren excellent service for many years, but come the late-1960s, the M24 was obsolete, and an upgrade program began. This resulted in the NM-116 and NM-130. Four unmodified M24s were given to the Heimevernet (the Norwegian Home Guard) which operated them well into the late 1970s. Any leftover vehicles were either sent to the ranges, or placed into storage.
A Heimevernet Chaffee in the late-1970s. Photo: modellnorge.no
The majority of tanks that remained after their retirement from the Heimevernet were either scrapped or sent to military firing ranges. A small number of vehicles – exact amount unknown – were used as static coastal defenses. For this, their turrets were removed and placed on concrete plinths. When not in use, the turrets were covered with a camouflaged metal ‘shed’ to keep them concealed. When needed, the ‘sheds’ were raised via hydraulics. In a fashion similar to the KW-III turret placements at Ft. Bjørnåsen, these turrets were part of a larger bunker system. An example of this is a bunker system was located in Harstad, in the far north of Norway. The turrets remained in place until the end of the Cold War (early-1990s), after which they started to be removed. The last use of the standard Chaffee came in 2002, when it featured in a rather risqué Norwegian mineral water commercial.
The removal of the turrets from Harstad in northern Norway. Photos: Dag Rune Nilsen
By the late-1960s, the Chaffee was getting a little bit long in the tooth. Naturally, the Forsvaret began looking for a way to increase the lethality of their tank arm. At this time, however, Norway was not the richest of countries so, instead of spending millions of Kroner on a new vehicle, they chose to upgrade the Chaffee. The Oslo based company of Thune-Eureka A/S was chosen to develop the upgrades, which incorporated a new 90 mm main gun, a new, more powerful engine, a new transmission, and various other modernizations.
Pre-production model of the NM-116 Panserjager. Photo: reddit
The upgrade program centered around a new main armament, consisting of a French D/925 Low-Pressure 90 mm gun. Firing a Hulladingsgranat M62 High-Explosive Anti-Tank (HEAT) round, the weapon was capable of defeating up to 320 mm (12.6 in) of armor, a vast improvement over the M24s original 75mm gun. This was complimented by a new coaxial Browning .50 cal (12.7 mm) machine gun, and a laser range-finder placed over the barrel. The main automotive upgrade was the replacement of the original engine with a new Detroit Diesel 6V-53T. Other, smaller modifications included a new Leopard 1-style rubber-pad track, a new sprocket wheel, new radios, and German-made smoke dischargers.
This upgraded vehicle, now designated NM-116, entered service in 1975. With the new upgrades came a new role. The upgraded Chaffee went from being a light tank, to a tank destroyer, hence ‘Panserjager’. The NM-116 was an ‘ambush predator’, and would use its small size and good maneuverability to outflank the enemy, engage, and then withdraw along pre-arranged lanes of engagement. The NM-116 was a successful conversion, but by the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s, the tank was becoming obsolete. Its gun simply did not have the penetrative power to combat modern armored fighting vehicles. This led to the NM-116 receiving the nickname ‘Pansernager’, literally meaning ‘Armor Nibbler’ due to the weapon’s lack of killing power. Nevertheless, the tank served the Norwegian Army well for 18 years, finally being retired in 1993.
NM-116s and crews in the Norwegian mountains on exercise, late-1980s. Photo: Dag Rune Nilsen.
To support the new NM-116, it was also decided that a new Armored Recovery Vehicle (ARV), or ‘Bergepanser’, be developed. For this, four Chaffees were separated from the NM-116 project. The conversion work to turn the vehicles into ARVs was undertaken by Kvaerner Eureka AS. The four Chaffee hulls went through the same automotive upgrades as those being upgraded to NM-116 standard. The turrets, however, were completely removed and replaced with a large crane. A small dozer blade was also installed on the vehicle’s lower glacis.
The NM-130 Bergepanser. Photo: Dag Rune Nilsen
This ARV was designated the NM-130 Bergepanser. The large pivoting crane was telescopic and could be raised or lowered by a hydraulic ram. It had a 2 to 7 tonne (2.2 – 7.7 ton) capacity, with integral 19-tonne (21 ton) capacity winch. The crane had a relatively low lift capacity as it was not designed to lift an entire vehicle, rather just its components. The 2-7 tonnes lift capacity was more than enough to hoist the NM-116’s Detroit Diesel engine which weighed just 600 kgs (1323 lbs). It was necessary that the cable have quite a high tensile strength so it could tow or retrieve the NM-116. For this, the cable was threaded through fairleads (a device that guides a line, rope or cable) placed behind the winch drum. This allowed the vehicle to tow vehicles behind it. To do this though, the crane would have to be traversed 180 degrees. The NM-130’s dozer blade performed three main roles: light earthmoving operations/obstacle clearance, support during lifting operations, and anchorage when winching.
The Bergepanser entered service around the same time as the NM-116 and left service with its tank-killing brother in the early 1990s. There is a possibility that it stayed on in service a little longer to serve Norway’s fleet of M48s and Leopard 1s, but concrete evidence of this cannot be found.
NM-130 Bergepanser with crane at full erection. Photo: hestvik.no
Conclusion
The Chaffee gave the Norwegian Army one of its earliest experiences in the operation of relatively modern armor after the Second World War, and served as its primary tank for many years. In total – thanks to the NM upgrade programs – the M24 gave the Hæren approximately 47 years of service, making it one of Norway’s longest-serving armored vehicles. This is surpassed only by the now 56 years of the M113 which – again thanks to upgrade programs – has remained in Norse service since around 1964.
Not many unmodified Norwegian Chaffees remain, however, there are a few. In the late-90s, early-2000s, the Norwegians began removing the Chaffees from their ranges and storage. A few vehicles went to Museums around Norway, but Museums around the world also began buying them and restoring them for display. An example of such a vehicle can be found at The Museum of the American G.I. in College Station, Texas, USA. The vehicle has since been restored to a fully operational condition.
The Chaffee of the Museum of the American GI, an ex-Norwegian army vehicle. Photo: Michael Kellet, americangimuseum.org
A Stridsvogn M24 of Stridsvogneskadron Sola. The emblem on the turret side is one still commonly used in the Kavalerieskadronen (Armoured Cavalry), and is a representation of the Norse God Odin and his Ravens. Illustration produced by Ardhya Anargha, funded by our Patreon campaign.
Republic of El Salvador (1944)
Light Tank – 6 Operated
Sandwiched between the Pacific on its south, Guatemala to the west and Honduras to the east, the nation of El Salvador is tiny. In 1969, this nation consisted of about 3.4 million people living on 21,000 square kilometers – slightly smaller than the US State of New Jersey. The history of this nation at the end of the 20th Century was a bloody one.
El Salvadoran M3 Stuart parading through San Salvador with a captured Honduran flag. Source: Spencer
El Salvador’s military was a small affair too (~4,500 men in 1969 with an additional 25,000 nominal reserves), mainly armed with secondhand American military equipment supplied after WW2. In July 1969, El Salvador had a brief border war with Honduras, in which the Salvadoran army’s armored force was found to be seriously outdated. Primarily consisting of a handful of elderly M3 Stuart light tanks, the firepower was insufficient to support the soldiers and the armor too thin to protect against anti-tank weapons deployed by the Hondurans, such as American supplied recoilless rifles. The armor that did indeed prove successful for El Salvador was not these relics of a bygone age, but actually hastily improvised armored trucks.
El Salvador, under dictator General Maximiliano Martinez, had been sympathetic to dictators like Mussolini and Hitler. However, following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, they joined with the United States in declaring war against the Axis. By 1942, El Salvador was a member of the Allies and, starting in 1942, the US Military was supplying arms to Central America to assist with internal security, including El Salvador. In early 1944, the United States supplied 8 (US records indicate 6) surplus M3A1 Stuart Light Tanks to Gen. Martinez’s regime. These were all allocated to the Cavalry Regiment replacing the obsolete Italian CV.3/33 Light Tanks which had been operated since 1938. Just a few months after the Stuart tanks arrived, these new vehicles were used in a coup by the Army to force Martinez from power and into exile.
According to Captain Johnson’s (1986) research on the subject of arms supplied by the USA to El Salvador, there were no tanks supplied post-WW2 by the United States. Neighboring Guatemala was supplied with ten M3 Stuart light tanks in 1947, following the signing of the Rio Treaty (Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance) and some speculation has been that, as Guatemala was friendly with El Salvador, some of those vehicles might have been supplied. This appears to be incorrect and Capt. Johnson’s research confirms this. This meant that the only tanks known to be in El Salvador by the end of WW2 and some time thereafter were those 6 or 8 Stuarts delivered in 1944, a situation which remained until 1969.
El Salvadoran M3 in the captured Honduran town of Nueva Ocotepeque. Source: Spencer
Football
The Hundred Hours War or ‘Football’ War, as it is sometimes known, took place at a time of pre-existing tensions between El Salvador and Honduras, coinciding with rioting which took place during a 1970 World Cup Qualification match. The background to this conflict was an ongoing border dispute between Honduras and El Salvador made worse by agrarian reforms in Honduras in the late 1960s. These had resulted in the expulsion of some of 300,000 Salvadoran laborers and farmers (making up about 15% of the entire Honduran population) and the appropriation of property owned by them in Honduras which raised tensions between the nations. Thousands of Salvadorans are believed to have been killed, raped, or dispossessed from their land during this time. The increased repression of Salvadorans in Honduras at the time of the 1970 World Cup qualifiers was just more petrol on this fire.
The ‘football’ element to the war was a good media line coined by journalists for trying to explain these complex animosities between the two nations made all the more unclear by an undelineated border between the countries. Nonetheless, both states felt that they were the aggrieved parties in the war. On 14th July 1969, troops from El Salvador attacked neighboring Honduras.
The war ended after a ceasefire imposed by the Organization of American States with a negotiated peace on 18th July (took effect on 20th July) – hence the conflict sometimes being called the ‘100-hour war’. The name ‘Football War’ (and, unfortunately, some later publications catering to the American market referring to it as ‘The Soccer War’) has led to some people speculating that the war was related to an actual football game or riot, but it was not. The football element was merely symptomatic of problems caused by agrarian reforms in Honduras and some lazy journalism.
Salvadoran M3 on a trailer in the captured Honduran town of Nueva Ocotepeque. It is likely this vehicle simply ran out of fuel. Source: Spencer
Attack
The invasion of Honduras took the form of a coordinated aerial attack on the main Honduran airport and a three-pronged land force: The Northern Theatre (Teatro de Operaciones del Norte – TON), The Chalatenago Theatre (Teatro de Operaciones Nororiental – TONO), and The Eastern Theater (Teatro de Operaciones Oriente – TOO).
Disputed territorial boundary shown as dashed line between the countries. Source: CIA – President’s Daily Briefing 16th July 1969.
The Northern Theatre force (TON), under the command of Colonel Mario de Jesus Velasquez, consisted of lightly armored improvised vehicles known as Rayos. Accompanied by infantry, the force was to advance north-northwest towards Honduras’ second city, San Pedro Sula, before swinging south to the Honduran capital, Tegucigalpa.
The Eastern Theatre force (TOO), under the command of General Segundo Martinez, attacked eastwards along the Pan-American Highway with the intention of then swinging north to the capital. The theatre of action encompassed the areas of La Unión and Morazán was composed of the bulk of the Salvadoran armor, the M3 Stuart light tanks, mechanized units, and artillery support.
The third force (TONO), was a 300 strong unit under the command of Lt. Col. Manuel Antonio Nunez working between these primary thrusts preventing Honduran force concentration.
The plan was, therefore, a simple one. Protecting their own border and a two-pronged pincer movement on the Honduran capital.
The objective was similarly simple, either seize the capital and/or force Honduran President Oswaldo Arellano to abdicate in what was supposed to be a 72-hour campaign.
Success was rapid initially, with the element of surprise on the side of the Salvadorans and the aerial attack having temporarily crippled the Honduran air force. Having attacked on the afternoon of 14th July 1969, by the end of the next day, Salvadoran forces had pushed over 8 kilometers inside Honduras. Within a day or so, the Honduran troops were withdrawing and trying to organize a defense at a hill called El Quebrachal in the Northern Theater. To take this defensive position, Salvadoran forces attacked with infantry supported by two M3A1 tanks. Both vehicles were put out of action by Honduran 57 mm Recoilless rifles and 3.5” bazookas. The Salvadoran infantry finished the assault though, pushing the Hondurans back.
A second battle took place in the Northern Theatre, at another hill which was being used as defence. Known as Chicotera, it was defended by Honduran troops guarding the east of the strategic town of Nueva Ocotepeque. Again, Salvadoran forces attacked supported by at least one M3A1 tank, although it ran out of fuel and had to be abandoned. Soon after, though, they had occupied Nueva Ocotepeque.
Salvadoran M3 Stuart tank rolls through the streets of Nueva Ocotepeque. Source: El Mundo
The attacks in the North were successful, but the performance of the tanks had been poor. In the Eastern Theater, the Salvadoran armor was made up of improvised armored trucks known as ‘Rayos’. In coordination with bulldozers being used as makeshift tanks, the Salvadoran 11th Battalion took control of the town of El Amatillo, an advance of about 5 km by the end of day one. A counterattack supported by aircraft launched by the Hondurans the next day was repulsed, but a second attack by the Salvadoran forces against Nacaome failed and the war in the East ground to a halt.
El Salvadoran soldiers during the Hundred Hours War. Source: Associated Press
The Salvadoran attack soon stalled however, as the main armored force started to meet increased resistance. The Honduran air force started bombing locations in El Salvador and, on the ground, Tegucigalpa, the capital city of Honduras, was under threat by Salvadoran forces. The result was a movement by the Organization of American States (OAS) to sue for peace. The infuriated Salvadorans took some convincing, but with possible sanctions being imposed on them, they agreed, and eventually withdrew on 2nd August 1969, bringing the war to a nominal end, although tensions remained for several years. Even today, some tensions still remain over issues from this war which are unresolved.
Preserved M3A1 at Museo Militar de la Fuerza Armada ‘Cuartel El Zapote’ in San Salvador in 2008. Source: FAVAustinTX on Flickr
Conclusion
El Salvador might have lost the first round qualifier in the football to Honduras but it won the rematch and a third decisive game too, qualifying to the Football World Cup for the first time in its history. Not only that, but it had proved that it was not going to be pushed around or tolerate the mistreatment of Salvadorans across the border in Honduras. The war though, like so many, was a pointless one, stoked by inflamed nationalistic rhetoric in the domestic media on both sides. Thousands of people were killed and even more people were dispossessed, and both economies suffered. El Salvador had learned a valuable lesson though – its armor force was obsolete. The force which had done well was a lightly armored improvised one, this was to shape Salvadoran thinking for a generation in terms of lightly armoured and mobile vehicles, although the tank role was eventually replaced with the French AML 60/90 armored cars. The M3 Stuarts which were left were eventually relegated to display purposes, having fought in one of the most obscure wars of the Twentieth Century.
Older image of the M3A1 at Museo Militar de la Fuerza Armada ‘Cuartel El Zapote’ with a different camouflage pattern. Source: Flickr
It is not known how many of the original eight M3A1 Stuart light tanks El Salvador lost during the war with Honduras, but at least two are reported to have been knocked out. At least three still survive, one at the Museo Militar de la Fuerza Armada ‘Cuartel El Zapote’ and two as gate guardians at Ciudad Arce base of the Regimiento de Caballería (Cavalry Regiment). Both vehicles outside this military base are painted in a three tone green, grey and tan scheme, although all of the wheels and suspension components are painted white. The tank at the Museo Militar de la Fuerza Armada ‘Cuartel El Zapote’ is painted in a daring three tone, dark grey, brown, and bright green with the lower hull sides, wheels, and suspension components all painted black. Older images show that is has been repainted at least twice since it was at the museum and previously sported a darker green with tan and black splotches, although the lower hull and suspension parts were still black. One final note with the Stuarts in El Salvador is that, during the troubles of the 1980’s, there was some planning done about how to modernise them but quite what this entailed is unknown. The plan was reportedly nixed by US military advisers but what these plans had in store for these tanks will perhaps be known one day.
Gate Guardian of the Regimiento de Caballería, Arce, El Salvador. Source: Himura Kingy via Flickr
El Salvadoran M3A1 Stuart. Illustration by Tank Encyclopedia’s own David Bocquelet
Specifications
Dimensions
4.33 m x 2.23 m x 2.35 m
14ft 2in x 7ft 4in x 7ft 9in
Total weight, battle ready
14.7 tons
Crew
4
Propulsion
Continental 7 cylinder petrol
250 hp – air cooled
Speed
58 km/h (36 mph) road
29 km/h (18 mph) off-road
Range
120 km at medium speed (74.5 mi)
Armament
37 mm (1.45 in) M5 or M6
3 to 5 cal.30 (7.62 mm) M1919 machine guns
Republic of Uganda (1969-1979)
Medium Tank – 12 Purchased
The M4 Sherman is, without doubt, one of the most recognizable and well-known tanks of the Second World War. Entering service in 1942, the tank would be mass-produced in many different variants and saw service with all the major US allies. After the war, the large number of surplus tanks meant that nations with little-to-no armor and limited budgets could purchase a decent and reliable tank in substantial numbers. Some of these, such as Argentina or Israel, would eventually modify and update their tanks to keep them in service. The Sherman tank would go on to see service and combat for many decades after its debut, with one of the last occasions being the Uganda-Tanzania War of 1978-79.
A Ugandan tank crewman reading a newspaper atop his M4A1 on January 25th 1971. The vehicle, registration number 05UA85, is parked outside Idi Amin’s Kampala house and belongs to the 5th Mechanized Regiment. Photo: SOURCE
Context and History
In October 1962, the Protectorate of Uganda achieved independence from Britain. The following decades would be turbulent and marked by instability. To counter new leader Milton Obote’s adoption of Socialism, Great Britain and Israel backed a military coup led by Colonel Idi Amin. This led to eight years of brutal military rule ending with the overthrow of Amin’s regime after defeat in the Uganda-Tanzania War.
Uganda and Tanzania share a border which, during the Nineteenth Century ‘Scramble for Africa’, had served as the border between the British and German empires. These boundaries, drawn on a map, often divided ethnicities and put together a mixture of ethnic groups ruled by ‘divide and conquer’, creating decades of conflicts after independence. The northern Tanzanian province of Kagera, with a landmass of 695 square miles (1800 square kilometers) and bordering Lake Victoria to its East, Rwanda to the West, and Uganda to its North, was, at least according to Amin, rightfully Ugandan territory. Coincidentally, the province also housed around a thousand Ugandan dissidents, opponents to Amin, who had moved there after a failed coup against the dictator in 1978. From Kagera, they mounted cross-border raids with the collusion of Tanzanian authorities. After a short build-up campaign, in order to crush the dissenters and the Tanzanians who aided them, Amin launched Operation Liberation in October 1978 without a declaration of war.
Idi Amin congratulating crewmen from Uganda’s M4A1’s. Photo: SOURCE
The Israeli Connection
In the early years of Obote, Uganda enjoyed very friendly relations with Israel. Because of its strategic location south of what was then Sudan, Uganda was a useful ally for Israel. Sudan had supported Egypt in the Six-Day War and would send troops to fight Israel during the Yom Kippur War. Uganda received Israeli military advisors and surplus Israeli equipment during this period, most notably, 12 M4A1 Shermans equipped with the M1A1C 76mm gun, and a number of M38 Jeeps in 1969. It is not known how the tanks got all the way from Israel to landlocked Uganda, but an informed guess is that they were ferried to Kenya and then rail transported.
Map of the region. Photo: SOURCEOne of the Ugandan M4A1 Shermans with HVSS suspension driving through the African bush. Photo: SOURCE
In early 1972, shortly after Amin had taken over, and with the intention of waging war with Tanzania to obtain a land corridor to the Indian Ocean, there were some talks regarding acquiring a second batch of tanks and 24 McDonnell Douglas F-4E Phantom II fighter-bombers. Negotiations would not materialize and in revenge, Amin closed the Israeli embassy and severed diplomatic relations. The deterioration of relations would culminate in the Israeli raid on Entebbe airport on July 4th 1976 to free the hostages from the Palestinian PFLP-EO hijacked Air France Tel Aviv-Paris flight after Amin had allowed the hijackers to use Entebbe as a destination. After this, Muammar Gaddafi’s Libya became Amin’s main backer and supplier.
“Tankensteins” from Israel
The 12 Shermans Uganda purchased from Israel were the first tanks in the country’s inventory. Although all of them were of the M4A1 variant, they were a variety of sub-variants and not one was exactly the same as another. Israel had got their hands on their Sherman tanks in the first place from US Army depots in Italy and the Philippines through legal and illegal means. To modernize them, Israel had heavily modified their Shermans. Modifications included: the addition of French-made smoke dischargers on each side of the turret (presumably from the French supplied AMX-13); the addition of spare track carrying brackets on the side of the turret, and at the front of the hull; the fitting of aftermarket radio antennas; and the fitting of a bracket holding a searchlight on the gun mantle. In images of these tanks in Ugandan service though, the searchlights seem to have been removed, either by the Israelis before delivery or through wear and tear in Uganda.
This image shows a close up of some of the Israeli added turret modifications. These include the pair of smoke dischargers, extra radio antenna, the bracket for the spare US Army-standard T54E1 tracks and the canvas gun mantle cover. In addition, there was a mix of suspension types, turret hatches, hull fittings and track types. The crewmen have a variety of US (Israel supplied) and Soviet (Libyan supplied) helmets and the man furthest to the left in the sunglasses is Idi Amin. Photo: Still from THIS video.A photo of three Ugandan M4A1’s on parade in the capital city, Kampala, which shows the differences between them. The lead tank shows the original WWII-style ‘split’ hatch for the loader in the turret, while the one at the rear appears to have the later style oval hatch. The Sherman in the center is missing the steel tow cable which can be seen on the left side of the other two tanks. The photo was probably taken in 1969 and all three vehicles belonged to the 5th Mechanized Regiment. Photo: SOURCE
Camouflage and Markings
Once they arrived in Uganda, the tanks were painted deep bronze green. Black and white photos taken in 1987 of a knocked out M4A1 on a road north of Kampala show what appears to be two-tone camouflage on the tanks, rather than just plain bronze-green. There are two possible explanations for this: 1. the locals have applied their ‘own camouflage’ or it has been covered in graffiti (See Cuban Comets for similar artistic expressions by locals); or 2. and most likely, the camouflage has weathered.
For markings, the tanks were given red and green diagonally halved rectangles on the sides, on the rear left mudguard, and on the frontal curving of the hull next to the tracks. The rear right mudguard seemed to bear a unit emblem. The tanks’ serial numbers were written in white on the rear.
The rear of a Ugandan M4A1 showing the serial number in white, the green and red rectangle on the left mudguard and a unit emblem on the right mudguard. Photo: Still from THIS video.
Service History
It is not known if the tanks played any part in the Amin-led coup in 1971 nor the brief border clash with Tanzania in 1971. They would, nevertheless, play a key role seven years later in the Uganda-Tanzania War. The twelve M4A1’s, along with ten T-34/85’s from Libya, a number of British Ferret Armoured Cars, thirty-six Czechoslovakian OT-64C’s and around sixty Soviet BTR-40’s, composed the armored forces of Amin’s army and led the attack into Tanzania in October 1978. All the M4 Shermans and T-34/85’s were part of the 5th Mechanized Specialist Reconnaissance Regiment ‘Suicide Regiment’ or ‘Malire Mechanized Regiment’ under the command of Colonel Bernard Rwehururu. The ‘Suicide Regiment’ was ordered to attack the bordering town of Mutukula along the Kyaka Road before meeting other forces Bumazi and advance to Bukoba. By October 30th, Ugandan troops were 20 miles inside Tanzanian territory and outside the city of Kyaka where their advance stalled. Uganda had not planned for a long war and hoped that their initial strike would make Tanzania sue for peace.
A rare and blurry photo of a Ugandan M4A1 Sherman being transported to the border with Tanzania before Operation Liberation. Photo: SOURCE
However, their initial advance had been met with fiercer resistance than expected and soon after, Tanzania sent their own forces and armor, consisting mainly of Chinese Type 59A’s, a Chinese copy of the Soviet T-54/55. With their stronger armor, lower profile and superior firepower, these tanks outclassed all of the Ugandan armor, forcing them to retreat. No M4A1 is believed to have been lost in the invasion, but one or two were destroyed during the November-December Tanzanian counter when stationed around the border in Mutukula. On December 24th 1978, Ugandan forces crossed the border back into Uganda. By this point, the M4A1’s had been fighting for almost three months with no maintenance.
On January 20th, Tanzanian troops crossed the border and commenced their drive up north. On the Ugandan side of the border of Mutukula, troops of the 208 Brigade of the Tanzanian Army engaged a platoon of Shermans, knocking one out before the rest retreated. In March, three M4A1’s along with around twelve Libyan T-55’s attacked the Tanzanian 201st Mechanized Brigade. Without previous scouting, the two forces collided into each other in the Lukaya swamps on the 10th. After initial success by the Ugandans, the Tanzanian forces regrouped and pushed all the way up to Entebbe, which fell on April 7th, and Kampala falling on April 10th. Two M4A1’s were knocked out in skirmishes on the outskirts of the Ugandan capital. There is no further recorded deployment of the M4A1’s and the war would end on June 3rd 1979. There are no official records, but it is presumed that six or seven out of the twelve Shermans were knocked out by Tanzanian forces or left un-operational.
An Australian military advisor to the re-instated Obote government poses with a non-operational M4A1 in Kampala in 1983. The photo shows the bronze-green camouflage, the attached turret smoke dischargers and the bracket for a searchlight on top of the gun mantle. Note the missing bow machine-gun. This is most likely due to it being removed by Ugandan forces once the tank was rendered non-operational to avoid it being stolen. Bow machine-guns were easy to remove. Photo: SOURCE
Some of the remaining Shermans were again used in 1985 during the coup of General Tito Okello in the closing stages of the Ugandan Bush War. In June 1985, Okello ordered his brigade to march on Kampala to overthrow Milton Obote. One of the two Shermans of this brigade was knocked out in the minimal fighting which took place.
Conclusion
The M4A1’s would remain in Uganda’s inventory according to some Western visitors until at least 1999, when three were reported to still be operational.
A photos taken north of Kampala in 1987 by a Western visitor showing a HVSS suspension M4A1. As usual, note the lack of bow machine-gun, the turret smoke dischargers and the bracket for a searchlight on top of the gun mantle. Exposure to weather has eroded the camouflage which now appears to be a two-tone scheme. Also note that the gun is still within its travel lock, meaning that it was probably not knocked out by Tanzanian fire, but by a breakdown. Photo: SOURCEWhat appears to be the same vehicle in a photograph taken a few years later demonstrating the effects of weathering on the camouflage. Photo: SOURCE
Even by the time of the Uganda-Tanzania War, the Shermans were obsolete and had little-to-no chance against Tanzania’s more modern equipment. Despite this, the Shermans showed their resilience and longevity during the war.
An abandoned M4A1 with HVSS suspension being repurposed as a washing line in Kampala. Photo: SOURCE
Illustration of a Ugandan M4A1 (76) HVSS produced by Andrei Kirushkin, funded by our Patreon Campaign.
Specifications
Dimensions (L-W-H)
6.15m x 2.42m x 2.24m
(20’1″ x 7’9″ x 7’3″ ft.in)
Total weight, battle ready:
35 Tons (26000 ibs)
Crew :
4 (2 Drivers/gunners, Commander, loader)
Propulsion:
Continental R-975 Radial Engine
Suspensions:
Horizontal Volute Springs Suspensions (HVSS)
Top Speed
40-45 kph (25-27 mph) M51/M50
Range (road)/Fuel consumption
400 km (250 mi) for 380L – 50L/100
Armament (see notes)
Main: 76 mm (4in) Tank Gun M1
Sec: 1 x .50 Cal (12.7 mm) Browning M2HB Heavy Machine Gun, 2 x .30 Cal (7.62mm) Machine Guns.
Armour
Hull nose and turret 70, sides 40, bottom 15, rooftop 15 mm
This 1974 French footage shows an M4A1 being ridden by Idi Amin in a mock training which concludes with Amin claiming it represents the retaking of the Golan Heights from Israel.
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Yugoslav Partisans/Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1944-1960)
Light Tank – 56-100+ Received
The Yugoslav communist Partisans, or National Liberation Army, were one of the largest resistance movements against Germany in occupied Europe, fighting many hard battles against the Axis forces during WWII. The Allies, seeing the importance of this struggle (as large number of Axis troops were sent to the Balkans to quell the Partisans), decided to supply the Partisans with a number of American Stuart light tanks and other military equipment, such as armored cars, trucks, military uniforms, and small arms etc. These Stuart light tanks were not first to be operated by the Partisans (they had used tanks such as the Italian L3 or the French Hotchkiss H35 and SOMUA S35 tanks among others) but were provided in enough numbers to equip a Tank Brigade. This Brigade would see heavy fighting from late 1944 until the end of the war in Yugoslavia in May 1945. The Stuart tanks were important not just for the Partisans, but they represented the nucleus from which the future JNA (Yugoslav People’s Army) armored force would be created. The Stuart tanks would remain in operational service into the beginning of the 1960s.
Prelude
After the Italian defeats in North Africa and Greece, Mussolini had no choice but to seek help from his German ally. Hitler, unwillingly, decided to send German military aid to help the Italian conquest of Greece. For the planned occupation of Greece, Hitler counted on the neutrality of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.
The government of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia joined the Tripartite Pact of Germany, Italy, and Japan on 25th March 1941. Two days later, Air Force General Dušan Simović, with the support of other military officers, staged a coup d’etat and overthrew the government (and the Regent Prince Paul) which had intended to join the Axis forces. The new government under Simović did not ratify the Tripartite Pact and commenced negotiations with Britain and the USSR. Due to these events, and in preparation for the attack on Greece and the Soviet Union, the German High Command decided to occupy Yugoslavia and create a safe environment for further operations. Thus began the ‘April War’ (codenamed Directive 25); the Axis invasion of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia on 6th April 1941.
After the end of the April War, Yugoslavia was divided amongst the Axis forces. Mostly because of the brutality of the occupying forces, the discontent of the occupied nations grew more and more. Very quickly in the territory of the former Kingdom of Yugoslavia, two liberation movements were formed, the Royalist Chetniks (Četnici/Четници) and the communist Partisans (Partizani/Партизани). The communist side would form the NOV (National Liberation Army) (Narodno-oslobodilačka Armija/Народно-ослободилачка Армија) but are more commonly and simply known as the ‘Partisans’.
These two groups at first cooperated together against the common enemy. In October 1941, joint Partisan and Chetnik forces attacked (with some captured German Beutepanzer SOMUA S35, Renault R35, and Hotchkiss H35/39 ) the city of Kraljevo (in southern-central modern-day Serbia). This attack failed and soon after, conflicting ideology would lead the former partners into an open civil war which would last until the end of WWII. Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941. The Axis forces used the southern parts of Yugoslavia, to quickly attack Greek positions. Source: Wikipedia
Forming of the First Tank Brigade
1943 was an important year for the Partisan movement for several reasons. Italy capitulated and the south of the country was occupied by the Allies. After the capitulation and withdrawal of Italian forces in September 1943, large parts of what was once Italian occupied Yugoslav territory were left undefended and abandoned. Partisans succeeded in capturing large quantities of weapons, including Italian tanks, self-propelled guns, armored vehicles, and trucks. The withdrawal of the Italians directly influenced the increase in the number of people who joined the Partisan side.
The communication and supply link between the German forces in Greece with the rest of Germany came under risk. The Germans were forced to send a large number of troops (14 division and 2 partly equipped divisions). The remaining German allies, the Hungarians and Bulgarians, were also heavily involved, with a total of 9 Divisions and 2 corps, with all available NDH forces (Independent State of Croatia/Nezavisna Država Hrvatska) and a number of Chetniks and Serbian collaborationist units also committed. In total, this combined force numbered some 1.1 million men (soldiers, support units and others).
Due to the fact that the Partisan movement was increasing in size and was tying down such a large number of enemy soldiers and equipment, they became an important factor in any future Allied war planning for this theatre of Europe. This was one of the many reasons why by the end of 1943 and early 1944, the Allies decided to support the Partisan movement only. Although they had also helped Chetniks in the past, due to the lack of Chetnik actions against the Axis forces in the Balkans (and many other factors which are under contentious and heated debate even to this day), they stopped any further assistance to this group. Thanks to the fact that the southern part of Italy was under Allied control, the possibility of closer cooperation with the Partisans opened up.
From 1943 and 1944 onwards, the Partisans liberated large territories that now had to be defended from any Axis attack. This led to the change of guerrilla-style fighting to a more direct one, but due to the increasing number of Axis forces, and more importantly the lack of a sufficient number of heavier equipment, these open battles were costly and not always successful.
The Allies decided to help the Partisans by training them and equipping them with much needed heavy weapons, such as tanks and aircraft. Many Partisan fighters that had some experience with this kind of equipment were transported to Italy to be used to form future training camps and centers. For the creation of the first tank unit with Allied equipment, 94 soldiers and officers in total from the 4th Tank Battalion (a unit that had been operating in Croatia and was equipped with captured Italian light tanks) were used. In April 1944, this group was transported by the Allies by sea to El Katadba in Egypt (near the city of Cairo). This group was reinforced with some 200 members of the Royal Yugoslav Army in Africa. This number would increase to 1,200, as most soldiers of the Royal Yugoslav Army would join this unit. By May 1944, it was moved to Chenifa (a training camp in Egypt), where the training of the crews would commence. The training was mostly carried out by British instructors and great attention was given to driving and firing. For training purpose, Stuart tanks and AEC armored cars were used. After some demanding and exhausting exercises, the training process was considered complete, and by late June, the unit was shipped to Italy once more. There, at Gravina Di Puglia (a village near the city of Bari), the First Tank Brigade was formed on 16th July 1944.
The British provided all the necessary materials needed to equip this brigade. At the very beginning, the Brigade had only 10 Stuart tanks. The British were at first reluctant to supply more tanks, as they did not believe that the Partisans could efficiently operate and maintain a larger number of armored vehicles. There were no more tanks available and the British could not provide personnel for maintenance of these vehicles. In order to discuss this issue, a meeting between the Supreme Allied Commander for the Mediterranean, General Sir Henry ‘Jumbo’ Wilson, and Josip Broz Tito (leader of the Partisans) took place on 10th August 1944. These negotiations were successful for the Partisan side and an agreement was made to supply a sufficient amount of armored vehicles to equip at least one tank brigade. Stuart tanks and their crews prior to their transportation to Yugoslavia. The photograph was taken at Gravina Di Puglia in 1944. Source
Brigade organization
The original planned organization structure of this brigade was the following: It consisted of a headquarter company (with additional support staff), an ambulance company, four tank battalions, an engineering battalion, a company of armored cars, a mechanics company, and a unit for crew training (this unit was removed from the brigade very early on). Each of these four tank battalions was further divided into two tank companies (there is no precise information on how many tanks each had), an anti-tank battery, and a rear support company.
The Brigade unit’s fighting strength consisted of 56 light tanks, mostly M3A3 Stuarts (though there were a small number of M3A1’s and possibly even few M5’s), 24 AEC Mk. II Armored Cars, and two M3A1 ‘White’ Scout Cars (to be used as command vehicles). Support elements consisted of 21 Ford 3t trucks, 21 Chevrolet 3t trucks, 2 1.5t trucks, 8 Jeeps, 6 fuel trucks, two unidentified tracked vehicles, and 9 motorcycles. There is a chance that other vehicles were included, but these are not listed in the sources. This speculation is based on the fact that when the Brigade was transported to Yugoslavia it had 59 tanks, more than the official documented (which also complicates the task of determining the exact number of tanks used).
As there were not enough tanks to equip all four tank battalions, a decision was made to use only three tank battalions and one armored car battalion. This armored car battalion was never used as a whole unit, but was instead divided into smaller groups and given to the tank battalions to be mostly used in an anti-tank role, as the QF 6-pdr (57 mm) gun on the AEC provided strong firepower.
The anti-tank battery was equipped with towed 6-pdr AT guns, which was the same gun as on the AEC Mk.II Armored Car, allowing for ammunition crossover. For the purpose of towing these guns, trucks and two unidentified tracked vehicles (possibly Bren Gun Carriers) were used. The engineering battalion was only mechanized after the Partisans captured a number of vehicles, mostly German.
For supplies necessary for the functioning of the Brigade, the Allies supplied the Partisans with 29,000 liters of fuel (with additional 35,000 liters requested by the Partisans official), 12,000 liters of oil, 19,000 rounds for the 37 mm and 6-pdr guns, and some 220,000 machine gun rounds.
In total, the Brigade had some 1,619 men. The remaining soldiers that were not included in the Brigade were instead sent to the Soviet Union to be a part of the Second Tank Brigade.
The Light Tank M3 ‘Stuart’
The M3 light tank was designed in 1940 to replace the older and outdated M2 tanks that were in service with the American armored forces. The M3 had many improvements over the M2, including thicker armor, stronger (due to the increase in weight) vertical volute spring suspension with a rear idler wheel, increased speed, and improved firepower consisting of four .30 machineguns and a 37 mm cannon. The first series was powered by the gasoline-fueled (petrol) Continental seven-cylinder four-cycle radial aircraft engine, but after 1942, a new four-stroke diesel radial Guiberson A-1020 engine was used. It had a crew of four (driver, driver assistant, gunner, and commander). From March 1941 to August 1942, some 5,811 Stuart (with petrol engine) and 1,285 (diesel engine) were built.
The much improved M3A1 version was produced from April 1942 onwards. The first batches of M3A1 tanks were built by using riveted armor, but later models had welded armor. The changes that were made were: improved turret design (the small commander cupola was removed) with two hatch doors, reducing the number of machine guns to three on later built vehicles, and the addition of a turret basket. Some 4,621 M3A1 tanks were produced by February 1943, including a small number of diesel-powered tanks (around 211).
Soon after the M3A1, a new model, the M3A3, was made (the M3A2 was only a paper project) as a result of poorly designed frontal armor and small fuel capacity. The front and side armor of the Stuart M3A3 was angled and the front viewing hatch for the driver and his assistant were replaced by new overhead ones. The radio was moved from the hull to the turret rear. Due to extra space that the Stuart M3A3 now had, it was possible to increase the fuel capacity. This version was produced until August 1943 (when the production of the Stuart was finally canceled) with a total of 3,427 vehicles being built.
The Stuart series saw extensive operational service throughout the war on many different fronts. The USA supplied the Stuart series to other nations through Lend-Lease, including 5,532 (of all variants) to the British Empire, 1,676 to the USSR, 427 to Brazil, with several other hundreds going to China, France, the Netherlands, and many Latin American nations. Britain would subsequently give some of their Stuart’s to Yugoslav Partisans. By 1943, however, the M3 was already outdated, due to its weak gun and feeble armor.
Partisan Stuart tanks in combat
Author’s note: as the sources often do not specify the exact model of M3 tank used by the Partisans (it could be either M3A1 or M3A3 or even M5), this article will use the Stuart designation for the sake of simplicity, unless the sources specify which model or version. Also, note that the Partisans and later in JNA documents designation Stuart was wrongly written as ’Styart’ or ‘Stuard’.
The Brigade was transported by British ships to the island of Vis (off the Yugoslav Adriatic coast) in early September 1944. This operation was successfully completed by October. Immediately after, all elements of the Brigade were transported onto Yugoslav mainland and were divided into two groups: Northern and Southern.
The Northern Group
The Northern Group (the 2nd Tank Battalion and half of the 3rd Tank Battalion, in addition to AEC Mk.II armored cars which were equally divided to reinforce the 3rd Battalion in both groups) was tasked with helping other Partisan units in fighting and expelling the German (118th Jagerdivision) near the island of Brač (in the south of modern day Croatia). For this operation, 34 Stuart tanks and 12 AEC Mk.II armored cars were chosen. The transportation process on behalf of the British was slow, and by the time the 2nd Battalion was ready for action, the Germans forces had been driven-off. The next step was to transport these units to the mainland, but there was a problem due to the insufficient number of adequate Partisans transport ships. The British refused to help because of enemy coastal artillery. The Partisans however, decide to attempt to land by using all ships they could find. By late October, most tanks were transported onto the mainland, with only one tank being lost as a consequence of heavy German artillery fire. This group, along with other Partisans forces, pursued the retreating German forces. The progress was slow due to obstacles and mines which had been placed by the Germans. By late October, Partisans broke through the German defense line (Solin-Kaštel-Sučurac). In the night of 27th-28th October, a group of four Stuart tanks were sent to attack retreating enemy forces, but in this attack one Stuart tank was lost to enemy fire. Transportation of a M3A3 tank by a British ships. Source: https://www.znaci.net/arhiv/fotografija/12063
After securing the coastline, the Northern group was moved toward the city of Šibenik (in central Dalmatia). It was planned by the Partisan high command to attack the city from two sides. Expecting a larger attack on the city, the German began withdrawing their forces (there was some number of Chetnik forces helping defend the city). During the advance on the city, elements of the Second Battalion unexpectedly came across a German force, and after some fierce fighting, lost four Stuart tanks with most of their crews being killed. The Germans had a battery of 75 mm PaK 40 anti-tank guns which could easily destroy Stuart tanks. There were other skirmishes with both German and Chetnik forces. A group of Chetniks came across a column of Stuart tanks, incorrectly thinking they were German tanks. The Partisan tanks immediately opened fire, killing many while the rest surrendered. Some German forces were left behind during the retreat and were surrounded. All available tanks and armored cars in the region were sent to destroy this group, but after some intense fighting, they failed and lost four tanks in the process, with one falling off a cliff. Consequently, the Germans managed to fight through the Partisans lines and escape. Regardless of this, the city of Šibenik was captured on 3rd November 1944.
Before the war, Šibenik had been a large naval shipyard and possessed a number of workshops. For this reason, the Partisans (despite some heavy sabotage made by the German) chose to make a repair and maintenance facility there. The Partisans managed to salvage some facilities and trained personnel in repairs and maintenance. As there was no reserve of new tanks, all tanks were considered important. Vehicles which had been destroyed or damaged were transported to Šibenik (how this was done is unknown, though possibly other tanks were used for towing) to be repaired if possible or to be used for spare parts. Those with turrets damaged beyond repair were used for different modifications equipped with captured German weapons. Šibenik would remain the main base for repairs and maintenance until the end of the war. In November, a tank school was moved to Šibenik from Gravine in the south of Italy to train new personnel. Training was mostly carried out on captured vehicles such as French and Italian tanks. Šibenik was an important repair facility for the Partisans. Here we can see an M3A3 being repaired. As a number had lost their turret, they were reused for mounting captured German guns. The photographed vehicle could be one of those. Source Collection of tanks of the Northern group at Šibenik, Winter of 1944/1945. Source
The next vital city to capture was Knin (on the Zagreb-Split road in inner Dalmatia). It was defended by a large force of entrenched German troops supported by Croatian Ustasha (Ustaše/Усташе), and Chetnik units, consisting of some 20,000 men, 20 tanks ( French Hotchkiss H35/39 and Italian FIAT (possibly) L6/40 tanks – under German flag). The Brigade’s Northern group was tasked in supporting other Partisan units (26th and 19th Divisions) in taking this city. The Brigade was further divided, with 13 tanks and 6 armored cars being assigned to the 26th Division and 12 tanks and 5 armored cars being assigned to the 19th Division. On 25th November, the first attacks using tanks and armored cars were unsuccessful, resulting in the loss of one tank and one armored car. The Brigade’s vehicles were not used as a single entity, but were instead divided into even smaller combat groups to support infantry units, which limited their offensive power. Furthermore, due to their tactical usage, the vehicles were easy targets for the defending forces. The armored vehicles were withdrawn and sent to support the attack of the 1st Dalmatian Proletarian Brigade on the city. The attack began on 2nd December, and after some heavy fighting, the Partisans managed to break the German resistance, which forced them to abandon Knin. By 4th December, all retreating German forces were destroyed or forced to surrender. The battle for Knin had been bitter and bloody, with the Partisans losing four Stuart tanks and one AEC armored car.
Actions of the Southern Group
The second Southern group (1st Battalion and the remaining elements of the 3rd Battalion) was tasked with the liberation of the Mostar region, which was vital to the Germans, as this was the main line of retreat for their remaining forces in Greece. Prior to the arrival of the Stuart tanks, Partisan forces had been stopped at the village of Buna (modern-day Bosnia). It was well defended, and the Neretva River flew through it, giving an extra obstacle that the Partisans had to overcome. Partisans with support of Stuart tanks and anti-tank guns attacked these positions but were not able to break through. The Stuart crews had great problems with the unknown terrain, with two being bogged down and a third falling on its side, forcing the crews to abandon the vehicles. Even though there was a danger that the Germans would destroy them, the Partisans went to great effort to salvage them. The Germans then launched a counterattack using Italian tanks which drove the Partisans back and brought a local Partisan hospital into danger. To save the situation, a tank company was quickly sent to try to stop the German advance. The counterattack was successful and drove the German back, with the loss of a single Stuart tank.
The next Partisan move was to attack the city of Široki Breg, which was a strong forward defense position defending Mostar. For this attack, 3 Stuarts and 3 AECs were chosen. But this attack proved unsuccessful, as the commander of the leading tank ran into (what he assumed was) a minefield. Instead of moving to another position, the commander decided to wait for infantry to clear the way for him. His tank was spotted by the Germans who immediately opened fire, hitting the tank, which caught fire, forcing the rest to withdraw. The next attack was also unsuccessful.
Using another similar force, the Partisans attacked another strong point at Nevesinje. The attack began on 30th November with three Stuart tanks and one AEC armored car with infantry support. The attack started well, but it was stopped as the Germans had six tank (four Italian, and two German tanks which the Partisans identified as ’Panthers’) and a number of Flak 3.7 cm guns. In the following battle, the Stuarts proved to be no match against the German tanks and one was lost, with one AEC receiving three direct hits, but miraculously, despite the damage, managing to pull back. The Germans lost one of their FIAT tanks. These actions were mostly unsuccessful due to the inexperience of the crews and commanding officers, poor positioning, insufficient scouting, and the use of tanks individually in a fire support role.
The fighting for Mostar continued until January 1945, when the Germans and their allied Croatian forces launched attacks on two bridges over the Neretva river in the hope that their destruction would slow down any future Partisan attack. One bridge near the city of Čapljina was briefly captured, only to be recaptured by Partisan forces with the help of several Stuart tanks (the bridge was damaged but still in use). Three Stuarts were damaged, though the Germans claimed five or more had been damaged. Two were captured by the Germans and used against the Partisans, with one later being destroyed in February and the second being recaptured. This indicates that the Partisans lost more than three tanks.
Unification of the Two Groups
As the Southern group alone proved insufficient to take down Mostar, the Northern group was called in to help in the upcoming planned offensive. Total Partisan strength was around 40,000 men, while the Germans (with Chetnik, Ustasha and a small numbers of Italians) had some 20,000. The Northern group made a 186 km long journey to reach its destination. On this journey, five Stuart tanks had to be abandoned due to mechanical breakdowns but would later be recovered.
At this time, the Brigade was reformed. As both groups had used the armored cars to reinforce the split 3rd Battalion, the Brigade HQ made the decision to rename the 3rd (Northern Group) into the 4th Battalion, as it was deemed that its dissolution would affect the battalion’s efficiency given that it had proved to be an effective force. As there were no spare British vehicles to equip this unit, enemy captured vehicles were used (exact models are unknown but possibly French – one Panhard 178 was used – or Italian).
The first attack with the reunited Brigade was launched against Široki Breg (6th February 1945), which was defended by a force of between 6,000 and 7,000 men equipped with different caliber anti-tank guns (37 mm to 75 mm). The attack was led by a group of Stuart tanks, while the AEC armored cars provided fire support against pillboxes and anti-tank guns, both being supported by Partisan artillery fire. But there was confusion as to how to proceed when the leading tanks ran into a minefield. Five tanks were lost to enemy fire and the attack was called off. All tanks were recovered, but at a great loss of life (eight killed and twenty-two wounded). Partisan high command decided to attack from the south with the 3rd Tank Battalion. Fortunately for them, due to the uneven terrain, this part of the defensive front was poorly defended and there were fewer mines and anti-tank guns. The attack was successful, which led to Germans leaving the first line of defense and pulling back into Mostar. A number of enemy armored vehicles were captured (at least one Somua S35 and one Semovente 47/32). One Stuart M3A3 during the fight for Široki Breg in 1945. Source
The main attack began on 13th February with the support from the tanks from the 2nd and 3rd Battalions. After some fighting and navigation through bad terrain, they finally managed to cross three bridges and enter the city. Partisans also attacked from Nevesinje, with progress being slow due to the terrain, but they eventually managed to enter the city. German forces managed to escape toward Sarajevo, but with great losses. The Brigade had only lost one Stuart in addition to four damaged tanks. At the battle for Široki Breg, even the Stuart M3A3 armed with the German 7.5 cm PaK 40 was used. Source: https://znaci.net/arhiv/fotografija/14367
The First Tank Brigade was later involved in supporting a large Partisan force of some 70,000 men against German and Croatian forces (20,000 men and 20 tanks) located in western Bosnia and the Croatian coast. The Brigade was again divided into two groups: the 1st and 3rd Battalions were given to the 26th Division and 2nd and 4th Battalions to the 19th Division. This was done by the Partisan HQ due to previous experience and cooperation of these forces. The 19th Division was tasked with capturing the city of Bihać (modern-day northern Bosnia). This Division was supported by Stuart tanks which made good progress, and after a few days of fighting, forced the German to pull back to the city. Two tanks were damaged, one by mine and one by a grenade. The advance was temporarily stopped as the Germans placed many mines and obstacles in the way, so the tanks had to wait for pioneers to clear the way. After the road was cleared, the advance carried on. As they approached the city, two AEC armored cars were sent to capture an intact bridge, but as they were crossing it, the Germans blew it up. One AEC dropped into the river, with the second one being destroyed by the Germans. The Germans, not willing to lose the city, sent reinforcements. To counter this, the 1st and the 2nd Tank Battalions were sent into the fight. The enemy was stopped at the cost of two Stuarts from the 2nd Tank Battalion. The 1st Battalion engaged heavy enemy resistance and lost 3 Stuarts with an additional one being damaged. As the battle was turning against them, the German and Croatians began a withdrawal. During the battle and retreat, they lost nearly 14,000 men. The First Tank Brigade suffered heavy losses. Out of the original 43 tanks, 8 Stuarts and 2 AEC’s were lost with an additional 7 Stuarts being damaged. Partisan mechanics worked day and night to repair as many of them as they could.
The Partisans continued to move towards the west, reaching the city of Gospić in what is today southern Croatia. On 4th April, the attack lead by the First Tank Brigade and five infantry divisions began. To counter this advance, the German sent 10 tanks (Italian L6-40). The Germans lost two tanks and had to pull back. After that the German defense was breached, they began to withdraw. One Stuart was destroyed and another damaged by enemy anti-tank fire. German and Croatian forces sent to stop them were beaten back. The Germans and the Croatian allies lost some 4,000 men, 40 guns and 20 armored vehicles.
The 2nd Tank Battalion was sent to capture Tounj (a small town southwest of Zagreb). Capturing this city would prevent German withdrawal from western Bosnia. The attack began on 13th April, and after a few days of heavy fighting, it was captured. Only one Stuart was damaged. Allegedly, one ‘Panther’ tank was destroyed by two AEC armored cars. This vehicle was proven later to be in fact a StuG III.
The final operations were the battles for Rijeka and Trieste, in the very west of Yugoslavia. The German positions were heavily defended with three defense lines consisting of a large number of old and new bunkers with 88,000 men, 338 guns, 60 tanks and 15 armored cars defending it, supported by Italian, Croatian and Chetnik forces. The total strength of the Partisan 4th Army (which had charged name before the attack) was 90,000 men, 366 guns, and 80 armored vehicles, counting with the support of the British RAF. The 4th Tank Battalion was the first to see action (17th April) in an unsuccessful attempt to subdue the defenders of the city of Sušak. The tanks proved useless in the attack on the well-defended city. The city was liberated on 21st April. In following days, two Stuarts were destroyed in addition to another one being damaged. By end of April, four Stuart tanks were cut-off and surrounded by German forces. The crews dismounted their tanks and used the Stuart’s machine guns to make a defensive perimeter whilst the gunners fired the main guns in support. The next day, Partisan infantry broke the German line and the Stuarts were saved. Due to bad terrain, tank use was limited, and one Stuart was lost on 28th April. Finally, by 3rd May, the line was broken and the city Rijeka was taken.
The city of Trieste was one of the last German resistance lines in this region. For its taking, the 2nd and 4th Tank Battalions were chosen to support the infantry divisions. The attack was carried out in two directions (each supported with one Tank Battalion). The 4th Battalion advance was successful, which led to the capturing of large stockpiles of ammunition and other war materiel near the village of Sežana. The second column was stopped as the bridge leading to Škofije was destroyed. This column was instead moved to Sežana to join forces with the 4th Battalion. This force managed to destroy many German units which were retreating in that direction. The battle for Trieste began on 30th April. German resistance was heavy and the first Partisan attack was repelled. On the same day, the 2nd Tank Battalion fought for the village of Basovizza, which was defended by 12 German tanks (including unknown numbers of captured Soviet T-34/76’s). During the following skirmishing, the Germans lost two tanks, with one T-34/76 being destroyed by an AEC armored car. Advance on Trogiro of the First Tank Brigade in 1945. Source
The war for the Germans was all but lost. They continued to fight stubbornly to defend their last defense line at Trieste. The 2nd and 4th Tank Battalions were involved in liberating Trieste. As the Partisan attack was too strong, many Germans tried to flee by boat to Venice. Most boats were sunk by the guns of the Stuart tanks. By 2nd May, the battle was mostly won bar a few pockets of German resistance, which, with the help of the Stuart tanks were eliminated. By 3rd May, the last German resistance was crushed.
The last action of the First Tank Brigade was at the city of Rijeka, near Trieste, where large numbers of Germans were retreating to Austria. The 1st Tank Battalion was the only battalion available, but its tank forces had been depleted. The first attack on the German positions was unsuccessful, with the loss of four Stuart tanks. The Partisan HQ’s, after the capture of Trieste, moved large forces to this area. By this time, the 1st Tank Battalion had only a few operational tanks, and was not able to stop the German advancing forces. The 2nd and the 4th Tank Battalions arrived, but even they were hard pressed by the now desperate Germans. Two Stuart were lost on the night of 6th-7th May. Seeing that there was no hope of breaking out, the German Commander, General Kibler, unconditionally surrendered to the Partisans.
Small numbers of the obsolete M3A1 Stuart light tank were sent to the Yugoslav Partisans.
Most of the Stuarts supplied to the Partisans were the improved M3A3 version with sloped armor.
One M3A3 Light Tank which had a damaged turret had it replaced with a 20 mm Flakvierling.
Another M3A3 Light Tank that had its turret or its armament damaged was modified to carry the potent 75 mm Pak 40 AT gun.
Fictional illustration of a Partisan 15 cm sIG 33 gun mounted on an M3A3 chassis. Such a vehicle was allegedly converted, but there is no proof to back this claim.
Fictional illustration of a Partisan M3A3 Stuart armed with a 120 mm Granatwerfer 42 mortar. While some sources claim this vehicle exists, there is no proof to back its existence. Illustrations by David Bocquelet with modifications by Leander Jobse.
Even though most tank used by the 1st Tank Brigade were M3A3’s, smaller numbers of older M3A1 (second tank in the column) were also used. This photograph was taken near Molmino in early 1945. Source
Total losses and reasons for them
By the end of the war, the First Tank Brigade had suffered heavy losses, with 33 tanks and 5 armored cars being destroyed, with a further 31 tanks and 2 armored cars being damaged. The Partisan tank losses were high as the Germans were using well-trained infantry (especially in the use of anti-tank weapons, such as the Panzerfaust and explosives), a lack of coordination with infantry, the inexperience of the crews, lack of adequate scouting, and difficult terrain. Poor and inadequate coordination with infantry were the reason why many tanks were lost. The infantry often lied to the Stuart tank crews of the presence of German anti-tank positions. They were hoping that the tank crews would somehow spot enemy anti-tank weapons and destroy them. This practice forced the Partisan High Command to give special orders forbidding this kind of actions. Another problem was lack of reconnaissance, as the ordinary infantry reports were not always the most reliable as seen earlier.
After the war
In June 1946, the total number of Stuart tanks was 54 (two of which were locally converted Flak Stuart’s). The First Tank Brigade was (from 1946) equipped with Soviet T-34/85 tanks and the Stuart were passed on to the 6th Tank Brigade. In later years, they were used mostly in military parades or as training vehicles. They remained in use by the Yugoslav People’s Army until 1960.
When they were finally withdrawn from operational use most were scrapped. Because of the historical significance these tanks had for the JNA, it was decided to preserve a certain number of them. Two Stuarts (one M3A1, serial number ‘8770’, and one M3A3, serial number ‘8776’ ) were placed at the Belgrade Military Museum (Serbia). One was placed as a monument in the Serbian city of Kraljevo. Three can be found in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH): one M3A1 in Sarajevo and two (M3A1 and M3A3) in Banja Luka. Two others (M3A1 and M3A3) are in Slovenian Military Museum in Pivka. The M3A1 in Pivka was bought from the Brazilian Army by a private collector before being given to the museum in 2008.
The M3A1 at the Belgrade Military Museum Source: Wikipedia
The M3A3 at the Belgrade Military Museum Source: Wikipedia
The M3A1 and M3A3 in the Pivka Museum Slovenia. The M3A1 (to the left) was originally in the Brazilian army. Source
Color and Markings
The Stuart tanks supplied to this Brigade had the original British continental green color, though a small number of tanks were painted in desert yellow or even combinations of both camouflage schemes.
Marking-wise, all tanks had the Yugoslav tricolor Flag (red, white and blue) with a red star in the middle painted on the hull side. Sometimes, a small red star was also painted on the turret. Political slogans (Za Zagreb-toward Zagreb) and the names of some cities (Beograd-Београд, Ljubljana-Љубљана etc.) were often written on the tanks, especially towards the end of the war.
How Many Were Supplied?
Although at first glance it seems that the number of Stuarts supplied can easily be determined, this is not the case. What is known with certainty is the fact that the British forces during the foundation of the First Tank Brigade supplied it with 56 M3A1/A3 tanks. It is possible that a few M5 were also included in this, but there is little or no evidence of this.
Authors Bojan B.D. and Dragan S. cited that on 6th March 1945, additional 36, mostly older, M3A1’s were supplied to the Partisans, with a few more in April. Additionally, three more tanks (abandoned by the Allies) were repaired by members of this brigade before their shipment to Yugoslavia.
According to Aleksandar R., some 51 tanks were supplied to replace the damaged and destroyed during the war. It is a possibility that an unknown number of tanks were supplied in small quantities by the end of the war.
The author Dinko P. presents several interesting facts:
When the Brigade was transported to the island of Vis, it had 59 tanks (here he agrees with Bojan B.D. and Dragan S.).
He also found information for additional M3A1/A3 tanks supplied on several occasions in Yugoslav official documents, but the exact number of vehicles are not mentioned.
The author was able to talk to a soldier from the First Tank Brigade (who had been part of it since the very beginning of the Brigade). According to him (the name of this soldier is not mentioned), all vehicles that were given by the Allies were operated in this unit, including the ones used for training. These (that were used for training) were transported by Partisan ships after the original transfer (by the Allies) of the Brigade to the territory of Yugoslavia. Also, an unknown number of tanks were ’obtained’ in various (and suspicious) ways, aka they stole them intact or slightly damaged from Allied army depots. In these cases, the Allies decided to turn a blind eye and did not prevent the Partisans from doing this.
On 31st January 1945, the total number of M3A1/A3 is listed to be 60 tanks, which is a bit more than the original number of 56 tanks.
Registration numbers and British labels (which were not removed in most cases) on a number of tanks give some indications that these vehicles were not originally intended to be supplied to the Partisans, but somehow these tanks found themselves in Yugoslavia.
According to Leland N., the British had supplied the Partisans with 52 M3A3 tanks with an additional 40 in the first half of 1945. Author Steven J, Zaloga writes that one M3A1 and 56 M3A3 were supplied.
Determining the exact number of supplied vehicles is more complicated given the fact that a fairly large number of damaged tanks were salvaged and put back into action. These vehicles could possibly be mistaken as newly supplied ones, and thus give a wrong impression of the total numbers. So, according to these facts, the total number may range from the original 56 to 100, or even more.
Partisan Stuart modifications
During the heavy fighting for the liberation of Yugoslavia, several Stuart tanks were damaged. Given that the caliber of the main gun on the Stuart tank was inadequate for a successful anti-tank role, the partisans decided to try to mount some captured German weapons in order to increase their firepower.
By the end of 1944, in Šibenik, the Partisans set up a workshop to repair their vehicles. In addition to the workshop, a collection office (also located in Šibenik) for captured, damaged, and destroyed vehicles was set, which also served as a source of spare parts. There, damaged M3A3 tanks were modified and armed with German weapons, such as the 75 mm PaK 40 anti-tank gun and 20 mm Flak 38 Flakvierling. It is also alleged that the Partisans rebuilt two more tanks and armed one with a mortar and the other with a 15 cm sIG 33 heavy infantry artillery gun, but the existence of either of these vehicles cannot be ascertained at this time. It is also worth mentioning that a single Somua S35 was rearmed with the 6-pdr gun taken from a damaged AEC armored car.
A final note is that most, if not all, British supplied Stuart tanks had track mudguards. The Partisan tank crews began removing them early on as they were a hindrance during tracks repairs.
Light Tank M3A3 with 7.5 cm PaK 40
As the 37 mm main gun was almost useless against stronger armored vehicles, the powerful 75 mm PaK 40 was installed on three Stuart tanks. The upper structure mounted the 75 mm PaK 40 anti-tank gun with its twin layer gun shield of 4 mm (0.16 in.) thick steel and a small armor plate between the gun and the tank hull in addition of two side armored plates.
One such armed Stuart managed to destroy a German T-34/76 in April 1945. Installing this gun made these vehicles capable of destroying any tank on this front. Drawbacks of these modifications include, among several others: slim armor, high recoil when firing the gun, low ammunition capacity. One 75mm PaK 40 armed Stuart during the Battles for Trieste and its surroundings in May 1945. Source
Light Tank M3A3 with 20mm Flak 38 Flakvierling
On two damaged M3A3 tanks, the German 20 mm Flak 38 Flakvierling anti-aircraft gun was installed. The only armor protection for the gun operators was the front gun shield, with no side or rear armor. This vehicle would be mainly used in the role of fire support for ground troops. The immense rate of fire of their Flakvierling armament was used to suppress enemy infantry, unarmored vehicles, and anti-tank positions.
The reasons for building these two modifications are not clear, as there were only a limited number of German and their allied planes flying over Yugoslavia by the end of 1944 and in early 1945. Both vehicles survived the war and continued in use for some time, possibly as long as up until the sixties. Two Stuarts were armed with German 20mm Flak 38 Flakvierling anti-aircraft gun. They were possibly used in combat but there is no information about their actions. Both vehicles would survive the war. Source
M3A1/A3 Mortar
Allegedly, during the war, one or two mortars were mounted on a Stuart chassis. The caliber of these mortars could be either 81 mm or 120 mm. One of the main ‘culprits’ for this confusion is a picture published (possibly after the war or just before its end) that shows Partisan crews using a vehicle which is assumed to be an M3A1/A3 as the base armed with two 120 mm mortars. However, this is not true, as the vehicle was, in fact, a German Sd.Kfz. 251 Ausf. D half-track armed with twin 120 mm Granatwerfer 42 (which is basically a direct copy of the Soviet M1938 without any changes to it). It is not known whether it was a Partisan modification or if they had captured this vehicle from the Germans (the second option is the most likely). So it is very likely that such a vehicle based on the M3A1/A3 did not exist. Both pictures are taken in Šibenik. The first allegedly shows the M3A1 armed with two mortars, while the second picture shows that it is actually a German Sd.Kfz. 251 Ausf.D half-track. Source
M3A1/A3 with 15 cm schweres Infanterie-Geschütz 33 (15 cm sIG 33)
The existence of the 15 cm schweres Infanterie-Geschütz 33 (15 cm sIG 33) armed version, sometimes (mostly online) called SO-150, is also under question. There are only a few mentions (in different mostly online sources) of an M3A1/A3 being modified with such a weapon It was allegedly destroyed in its first combat mission. In addition, there is no information on its exact characteristics. It is unknown if the whole gun (with wheels or without them) was used, and there is no known pictures or document that exist to prove it. This modification was probably impractical, because it would have put a lot of stress on the tank’s chassis, especially when firing, but also because of the weight of the gun itself. Limited ammunition storage in this vehicle would also be a problem. The biggest drawback though would be the low-level protection for its crew, an important fact as this vehicle was supposed to be involved in close combat operations. If it ever existed, this vehicle could very likely have similar characteristics and problems as the similar German vehicle based on the Panzer I Ausf. B.
Conclusion
The Stuart was rated as a good vehicle compared to other captured enemy vehicles used by the Yugoslav Partisans. The positive side was the availability of a more than adequate number of spare parts (and there were enough numbers of Stuart tanks that could in case of necessity, be reused for spare parts) and ammunition. In contrast, captured tanks were available in smaller quantities or even only as individual examples, which complicated the maintenance and ammunition logistics. Availability of at least 59 Stuart tank offered great offensive punch, but in most occasions, Partisans used them in smaller groups and often supporting infantry in attack, reducing their offensive power. The 37 mm main gun was by 1944-1945 standards obsolete, and ineffective in its role as an anti-tank weapon. But as on the Yugoslav Front most enemy tanks were older types (such as the L6/40 and H35/39), it was not that much of a problem. But on several occasion, modern German tanks (and self-propelled vehicles) were almost immune to this gun, which forced Partisans to use the 6-pdr gun of the AEC armored cars. This was the main reason why the Partisans modified a number of damaged Stuarts and armed them with German captured weapons in an attempt to increase their firepower, proving they had the skill and imagination necessary to do such modifications effectively so that they could be used in combat. The Stuart proved to be very important to the Partisans and was involved in many hard-fought battles for the liberation of Yugoslavia. A column of Stuart tanks preparing for an attack on Mostar in 1945. Source
Light Tank, M3A3 Specifications
Dimensions
Length 5.03 m, Width 2.52 m, Height 2.57 m,
Total weight, battle ready
14.7 t
Crew
4 (driver, driver’s assistant, gunner and commander)
Propulsion
Continental W-670
Speed
58 km/h, 32 km/h (cross-country)
Range
217 km
Armament
37 mm M6 gun, with three 7.62 mm machine guns
Armor
10-44.5 mm
Sources
The Stuart light tank series, Bryan Perrett, Osprey Publishing London. Tanks of the world, George Forty, Hermes House, Zbornik dokumenata i podataka o Narodnooslobodilačkom ratu naroda Jugoslavije, Beograd 1975. Armored units and vehicles in Croatia during WW II, part I, Allied armored vehicles, Dinko Predoević, Digital Point Rijeka 2002, Oklopne jedinice na Jugoslovenskom ratištu 1941-1945, Bojan B. Dumitrijević and Dragan Savić, Institut za savremenu istoriju, Beograd 2011. Modernizacija i intervencija, Jugoslovenske oklopne jedinice 1945-2006, Institut za savremenu istoriju, Beograd 2010. World War II Tanks and Fighting Vehicles, Leland Ness, HarperCollins Publishers 2002.
https://www.srpskioklop.paluba.info/m3/opis.htm Magazine Arsenal No. 15, Aleksandar Radić, Beograd 2008,
Naoružanje drugog svetsko rata-USA, Duško Nešić, Beograd 2008.
https://www.znaci.net/arhiv/fotografije?slika_po_strani=50&fraza=&stranica=3
https://the.shadock.free.fr/Surviving_M3_M3A1_Stuarts.pdf
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Successor States (1953-2003)
Tank Destroyer – 399 Supplied
After the so-called Tito-Stalin split that took place in 1948, the new Yugoslav People’s Army (JNA- Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija) found itself in a critical situation. It was impossible to acquire new modern military equipment. The JNA had been heavily dependent on Soviet military delivery and aid in armament and weapons, especially armored vehicles. On the other side, the Western countries were initially in a dilemma whether to help the new communist Yugoslavia or not. But, by the end of 1950, the side arguing in favor of providing military assistance to Yugoslavia had prevailed.
In the middle of 1951, a Yugoslav military delegation (led by General Koča Popović) visited the USA in order to achieve military cooperation between these two countries. These negotiations were successful and, on the 14th November 1951, an agreement for military aid was concluded (Military Assistance Pact). It was signed by Josip Broz Tito (Leader of Yugoslavia) and George Allen (American ambassador in Belgrade). With this contract, Yugoslavia was included in MDAP (Mutual Defence Aid Program).
Thanks to MDAP, the JNA received, during 1951-1958, plenty of military equipment, and armored vehicles, like the M36 Jackson, were amongst them.
During military exercises, somewhere in Yugoslavia. Having captured a large amount of German military equipment, one should not be surprised by the fact that the JNA soldiers were equipped with German WW2 weapons and other equipment. Photo: SOURCE
The M36
As the M10 3in GMC American tank hunter had insufficient penetration power (3in/76 mm main gun) to stop the new German Tiger and Panther tanks, the US Army needed a more powerful vehicle with a stronger gun and better armor. A new 90 mm M3 gun (modified AA gun) was developed relatively quickly. It had enough penetration power to destroy most German tanks at long ranges.
The vehicle itself was built by using a modified M10A1 hull (Ford GAA V-8 engine), with a larger turret (this was necessary due to the larger dimensions of the new main weapon). Despite the fact that the first prototype was completed in March 1943, production of the M36 started in mid-1944 and the first delivery to units on the front was in August/September 1944. The M36 was one of the most effective Allied tank destroyers on the Western front in 1944/45.
Along with the main version, two more were built, the M36B1 and the M36B2. The M36B1 was built by using a combination of M4A3 hull and chassis and the M36 turret with the 90 mm gun. This was considered necessary due to an increase in demand for these vehicles, but it was also cheap and easy to carry out. The M36B2 was based on the M4A2 chassis (the same hull as for the M10) with the General Motors 6046 diesel engine. Both of these versions were built in some numbers. The rare M36B1 in JNA service. Photo: SOURCE
The M36 had a crew of five: commander, loader, and gunner in the turret, and driver and assistant driver in the hull. The main armament was, as already mentioned, the 90 mm M3 gun (elevation of -10° to +20°) with a secondary heavy 12.7 mm machine-gun located at the top of the open turret, designed to be used as a light AA weapon. The M36B1, as it was based on a tank chassis, had a secondary ball-mounted Browning M1919 7.62 mm machine-gun in the hull. After the war, some M36 tank hunters had a secondary machine-gun installed (similar to the M36B1), received an improved main gun and the open top turret, which was an issue during combat operations, was modified with a folding armored roof for extra crew protection.
Unlike other tank-hunter vehicles of the same type used by other nations, the M36 had a 360° rotating turret which allowed a great level of flexibility during combat.
In Yugoslavia
Thanks to the MDAP military program, the JNA was reinforced with a large number of American armored vehicles, including the M36. During the period of 1953 to 1957, a total of 399 M36 (some 347 M36 and 42/52 M36B1, the exact numbers are unknown) were supplied to the JNA (according to some sources the M36B1 and M36B2 versions were supplied). The M36 was to be used as a replacement for the obsolete and outdated Soviet SU-76 self-propelled guns in the anti-tank and long-range fire-support roles. The M36 was used during military parades often held in Yugoslavia. They often had political slogans written on them. This one reads ‘Long-live the November elections’. Photo: SOURCE
A number of infantry regiment batteries equipped with six M36 vehicles were formed. Infantry divisions were equipped with one anti-tank unit (Divizioni/Дивизиони) which, besides the main command battery, had three anti-tank battery units with 18 M36s. Armored brigades of armored divisions were equipped with one battery of 4 M36s. Also, some independent self-propelled anti-tank regiments (with M36 or M18 Hellcats) were formed.
Due to bad international relations with the Soviet Union, the first combat units that were equipped with M36s were those who guarded the eastern border of Yugoslavia against a potential Soviet attack. Fortunately, this attack never came.
Yugoslav military analysis of the M36 had shown that the 90 mm main gun had enough penetration firepower to efficiently fight the mass-produced T-34/85. Modern tanks (like the T-54/55) were problematic. By 1957, their anti-tank capacities were considered inadequate to deal with modern tanks of that time, although they were designed as tank hunters. According to JNA military plans from 1957 onwards, the M36s were to be used as fire support vehicles from long distance and to fight on the sides of any possible enemy breakthrough. During its career in Yugoslavia, the M36 was used more as mobile artillery then as an anti-tank weapon.
According to the ’Drvar’ military plan (late 1959), the M36 was ejected from use in infantry regiments but remained in use in mixed anti-tank units (four M36 and four towed anti-tank guns) of many infantry brigades. Mountain and armored brigades had four M36. First line infantry and armored divisions (marked with a capital letter A) had 18 M36.
The M36 was often used on military parades during the sixties. By the late sixties, the M36 was removed from the first line units (most were sent to be used as training vehicles) and moved to support units equipped with missile weapons (the 2P26). In the seventies, the M36 was used with units equipped with 9M14 Malyutka ATGM weapons.
Although the process of modernizing military technology was initiated in the 1980s, there was no adequate replacement for the M36, so they remained in use. The Soviet towed smoothbore 100 mm T-12 (2A19) artillery was considered better than the M36, but the problem with the T-12 was its lack of mobility, so the M36 remained in use.
By the decision of JNA military officials in 1966, it was decided that the M4 Sherman tank would be withdrawn from operational use (but for various reasons, they remained in use for some time afterward). Part of these tanks would be sent to units equipped with the M36 to be used as training vehicles.
Development of New Shells and Ammunition Supply Problems
The 90 mm main gun did not have enough penetrating power for the military standards of the fifties and sixties. There were some attempts to improve the quality of the ammunition used or even design new types and thus improve the characteristics of this weapon.
During 1955-1959, experiments were carried out with new types of domestically developed and manufactured ammunition for the 90 mm gun (also used by the M47 Patton II tank which was supplied through the MDAP program). Two types of ammunition were developed and tested by the Military Technical Institute. The first was the HE M67 round and late during the seventies a new slowly-rotating HEAT M74 round was developed and tested. These tests showed that the M74 round had good penetration power. The pre-production of this type of ammunition began in 1974. Order for the full production was given to the ‘Pretis’ factory. This round was supplied to all units equipped with M36 and M47 tanks.
In the late fifties and early sixties, despite great help from the West, there was a great problem with maintenance and ammunition supply. Many tanks were not operational due to insufficient spare parts, lack of ammunition, an insufficient number of repair workshops, equipment defects, and an insufficient number of adequate vehicles for delivering supplies. Perhaps the biggest problem was the lack of ammunition. The problem with 90 mm ammunition was such that some units ran out of shells (during peacetime!). Available ammunition for the M36 was at only 40% of the necessary.
With the Soviet technique, the problem was solved by adopting domestic production of the ammunition. For the Western vehicles, the problem with ammunition was solved by purchasing additional ammunition, as well as by attempting to produce domestic ammunition.
M36 specifications
Dimensions (L x W x H)
5.88 without gun x 3.04 x 2.79 m (19’3″ x 9’11” x 9’2″)
Total weight, battle ready
29 tonnes
Crew
4 (driver, commander, gunner, loader)
Propulsion
Ford GAA V-8, gasoline, 450 hp, 15.5 hp/t
Suspension
VVSS
Speed (road)
48 km/h (30 mph)
Range
240 km (150 mi) on flat
Armament
90 mm M3 (47 rounds)
cal.50 AA machine gun(1000 rounds)
Armor
8 mm to 108 mm front (0.31-4.25 in)
Total production
1772 in 1945
Croatian M36 077 “Topovnjaca”, War of Independence, Dubrovnik brigade, 1993. Illustrated by David Bocquelet. GMC M36, fitted with the armored roof, used by one of the Yugoslav successor states, the Republika Srpska. This one has an unusual and a bit ridiculous markings ‘Angry Aunt’ (Бјесна Стрина) and ‘Run away, Uncle’ (Бјежи Ујо) inscriptions. Illustrated by Jaroslaw ‘Jarja’ Janas and paid for with funds from our Patreon campaign.
Modifications
During the long service life of the M36 in the JNA, some modifications and improvements were carried out or were tested:
– On some M36s, a domestic-built infrared night vision device (Уређај за вожњу борбених возила М-63) was tested. It was a direct copy of the one used on the M47 tank. It was tested in 1962 and produced in some numbers from 1963 on. At the beginning of the seventies, a number of M36 vehicles were equipped with a similar system.
– Besides the original 90 mm M3 gun, some models were rearmed with the improved M3A1 (with a muzzle brake) gun. Sometimes, a heavy 12.7 mm M2 Browning machine-gun was used, located on the turret top. The M36B1 version had a hull ball-mounted 7.62 mm Browning machine-gun.
– By the seventies, due to significant wear out in some vehicles, the original Ford engine was replaced with the stronger and more modern engine taken from the T-55 tank (according to some sources, the T-34/85 tank’s V-2 500 hp engine was used). Because of the larger dimensions of the new Soviet engine, it was necessary to redesign and reconstruct the rear engine compartment. A new opening door measuring 40×40 cm was used. Brand new air and oil filters were installed and the exhaust pipe was moved to the left side of the vehicle. This M36, in the process of being scrapped, was equipped with the T-55 engine. Photo: SOURCE
– An unusual fact was that, despite experimenting with various types of camouflage for its armored vehicles in addition to its primary grey-olive (sometimes in combination with green) color, the JNA never adopted any use of camouflage paint for its vehicles.
– The first radio used was the SCR 610 or SCR 619. Due to obsolescence and reorientation towards Soviet military technology, these were replaced with the Soviet R-123 model.
– Headlights and infrared night vision devices with an armored box were added on the front armor.
In combat
Even though the M36 was completely outdated as a military vehicle in the early nineties, it was still used during the Civil War in Yugoslavia. This was mostly due to the simple reason that it was available in large quantities and, since no stronger tank forces were available in sufficient numbers (many improvised armored vehicles, tractors and even armored trains were used), something was certainly better than nothing. Nearly all 399 were still operational by the beginning of the war. During the Yugoslav wars of the nineties, almost all military vehicles had different inscriptions painted on them. This one has an unusual and a bit ridiculous marking ‘Angry Aunt’ (Бјесна Стрина) and ‘Run away, Uncle’ (Бјежи Ујо) inscriptions. ‘Uncle’ was a Serbian ironic name for the Croatian Ustashe. In the upper right corner of the turret, it is written ’Mица’, which is a woman’s name. Photo: SOURCE
Note: This event is still politically controversial in the countries of former Yugoslavia. The name of the war, the reasons for the beginning, who and when started it and other questions are still being debated between politicians and historians of the former Yugoslav nations. The author of this article sought to be neutral and to write only about the participation of this vehicle during the war.
During the confusion of the beginning of the Civil War in Yugoslavia, and the gradual withdrawal of the JNA from the former Yugoslav countries (Bosnia, Slovenia and Croatia), many M36s were left behind. All participants of this war managed to capture and use certain numbers of this vehicle under various circumstances and conditions.
As most tanks, armored personnel carriers and other vehicles were mainly used in the infantry fire support role, the older vehicles could still be used without fear of engaging modern vehicles. Thanks to the M36’s good gun elevation and strong explosive shell, it was considered useful, especially in the mountainous parts of Yugoslavia. They were mostly used individually or in small numbers (larger groups were rare) for the support of infantry battalions or company advances.
During the war, the crews added a rubber ‘boards’ on some M36 vehicles, partially or on the whole vehicle, in the hope that this modification would defend them from high-explosive anti-tank warhead (this practice was carried out on other armored vehicles as well). Such modified vehicles could often be seen on television or images published during the war. Whether these modifications were effective is hard to say, although almost assuredly they were of little value. There were several cases when these modifications were claimed to have helped protect the vehicles which had them. But again, it’s difficult to determine whether these occurrences were due to this ‘rubber armor’ or some other factor. One such vehicle can be seen today at the Duxford military museum in Great Britain. It was bought after the war with the original Republic of Srpska markings. M36 with improvised ‘rubber armor’. Photo: SOURCE
After the end of the war, most M36 tank hunters were withdrawn from military use due to the lack of spare parts and obsolescence and were scrapped. The Republika Srpska (a part of Bosnia and Herzegovina) used the M36 for a short period of time, after which most were sold or scrapped. Only the new Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (consisting of Serbia and Montenegro) still continued to use them operationally.
According to the armament regulations instituted by the Dayton Agreement (late 1995), the former Yugoslav countries had to reduce their numbers of military armored vehicles. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia retained the right to have around 1,875 armored vehicles. By this regulation, a large number of older vehicles (mostly T-34/85 tanks) and 19 M36s were removed from service.
Some units which were equipped with the M36 were based in Kosovo and Metohija (Serbia) during 1998/1999. In that period, the M36s were engaged in fighting the so-called Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA). During the NATO attack on Yugoslavia in 1999, a number of M36 were used in the fighting in Kosovo and Metohija. During this war, only a few were lost due to NATO air strikes, apparently mostly thanks to the camouflage skills of the Yugoslav ground forces. The old M36 and the new M1A1 Abrams meet during the withdrawal of the Yugoslav Army from Kosovo in 1999. Photo: SOURCE
The last operational combat use of the M36 was in 2001. They were defending the southern parts of Yugoslavia against Albanian separatists. This conflict ended with the surrender of the Albanian separatists.
Changing the name of the country from the ‘Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’ to ‘Serbia and Montenegro’ in 2003, the M36 had, ironically, outlived yet another Yugoslavia. By the order of the High Command of the Armed Forces of Serbia and Montenegro (in June 2004) all usage and training on the M36 was to be terminated. The crews who were on training on this vehicle were transferred to units equipped with the 2S1 Gvozdika. In 2004/2005, the M36 was definitively removed from military service and sent to be scrapped, ending the story of the M36 after nearly 60 long years of service.
Several M36s were placed in various military museums and barracks in the former countries of Yugoslavia and some were sold off to foreign countries and private collections.
Links & Resources
The illustrated guide to Tanks of the world, George Forty, Anness publishing 2005, 2007.
Naoružanje drugog svetsko rata-USA, Duško Nešić, Beograd 2008.
Modernizacija i intervencija, Jugoslovenske oklopne jedinice 1945-2006, Institut za savremenu istoriju, Beograd 2010.
Military Magazine ‘Arsenal’, Number 1-10, 2007.
Waffentechnik im Zeiten Weltrieg, Alexander Ludeke, Parragon books. www.srpskioklop.paluba.info
Republic of China (1947-1949?) – 7? Donated Communist China (~1949) – At Least 1 Captured
Medium Tank
From USMC to KMT to PLA
The only known photograph of a Chinese M4A2 (Sherman) shows one in PLA (People’s Liberation Army) service on a victory parade in 1949, apparently with a non-standard main gun. The history of this specific tank, with the serial number “012403”, is not fully known. However, the only other confirmed user of the M4A2 in China was the United States Marine Corps’ 1st Tank Battalion, who were repatriating the Japanese after WWII, thus giving some clues as to the origin of “012403”. However, as this article will show, more questions are raised than answered about the history of the M4A2 in China.
Context: The Chinese Civil War
The Chinese Civil War was a struggle between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Chinese Nationalists (the Kuomintang / KMT / Guomindang / GMD) which began as early as 1927. Typically, however, the Chinese Civil War refers to the period of 1945-1949, which led to the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), and the Republic of China in Formosa (Taiwan). For an excellent introduction to the Chinese Civil War, see “Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War, 1946-1950” by Odd Arne Westad.
USMC M4A2s in China, 1945-1947
Prior to the discovery of the photo of “012403”, the only M4A2s in China were thought to belong to the USMC’s 1st Tank Brigade, who were part of a repatriation programme to return Japanese nationals home.
Context: Japanese Repatriations from China
At the end of WWII, an estimated 1.5-1.6 million Japanese were left in China, with 1.1 million being in Manchuria (formerly Manchukuo), and just over 500,000 in other areas (overwhelmingly these were in Formosa, nowadays Taiwan, with 479,000, but Hong Kong and other areas also hosted thousands).
In the years 1945-1948, a mass repatriation effort was initiated by the United States under Kuomintang auspices to repatriate those nationals back to Japan. This was chiefly because it was in the US’s interests to have a strong central government in China – regional instability would be intolerable as it may lead to further war – but also it was necessary for that government to be headed by the KMT because of the threat of communist expansion in the region, especially considering the Soviet invasion of Manchuria (9-20 August 1945) and its subsequent occupation. The existence of so many Japanese nationals with an effective refugee status presented questions of law and order, and therefore the KMT regime’s stability. Similarly, these nationals presented an implicit threat to the KMT because many of them had extensive military, economic, and technical expertises, and could be used as pawns in the civil war by the Communists. This fear was not unfounded, as on at least one occasion the Communists were able to force Japanese technicians to repair tanks to equip the first ever armored division of the PLA. (See Gongchen Tank for more).
The resumption of the Chinese Civil War in 1946 meant that the potential for trouble between the Japanese, CCP (Chinese Communist Party), and the Kuomintang was high. Even without the outbreak of war, such a large number of people would need policing by the military to maintain order. Therefore, repatriations in northern China were highly militarised and done with the supervision of US Marines.
The 1st Tank Battalion in China
Included in the USMC’s efforts in northern China were the 1st and 6th Tank Battalions. The former was equipped with M4A2 Shermans and the latter with M4A3s. Towards the end of WWII, the M4A2 was being phased out of US service because of its diesel engine. Put simply, diesel engines complicated logistics because most other US vehicles were petrol-fuelled, meaning that two types of fuel would have to be supplied if the M4A2 was kept in service. Therefore, it was logical to phase the tank out as soon as possible.
The 1st TB was left with only seven M4A2s after the Battle of Okinawa (April-June 1945), along with some M4A2 wrecks, but was not immediately re-equipped with new tanks. This is because the Battalion was not expected to participate in fighting immediately after the Battle of Okinawa. Instead of being earmarked for participation in the next major part of the war against Japan, Operation Olympic (an invasion of Kyushu scheduled for November 1945), the 1st TB was instead going to participate in the later Operation Coronet, a landing at the Kanto Plain near Tokyo which was scheduled for some-time in 1946. As a result, sending the 1st TB new equipment was not a priority and no immediate plans were drawn up for the re-equipment of the 1st TB. However, these Operations were scrapped due to the surrender of Japan in September 1945, and the 1st TB was scheduled for deployment to China as part of aforementioned repatriation operations in October.
For this, the 1st TB was originally going to be reequipped with new M4A3 (105)s, which were stored among new and old equipment in the 5th Depot in Guam. However, when these tanks were requested by the 1st TB, the Lieutenant-Colonel in charge of the depot claimed he did not have them in his inventory. After protests by the 1st TB, the Lieutenant-Commander of the depot was reprimanded by Lieutenant-General Keller E. Rockey, and the base was searched. Sixty M4A3 (105)s were found, but too late to be prepared for deployment to China due to the debacle. As a result, the 1st TB’s M4A2s were sent from Okinawa to China instead.
The 1st TB had its headquarters in Tianjin (Tienstin) from October 1945 until May 1947. They made regular convoys of trucks between Tianjin and the 5th Marines’ garrison in Beiping (nowadays Beijing), a journey of roughly fifty miles. These convoys were mail and supply runs, typically carrying drivers only.
Robert M. Neiman, the commanding officer of the 1st TB, records in his memoirs that one of these convoys was stopped by a fallen tree in the road (the date is not given, but presumably this is before he went back to the US, working in insurance and lumber industries some-time in 1946). When the drivers tried to remove the tree, they came under fire from unknown assailants (possibly bandits or even Communist guerrillas) forcing them to return to Tianjin. As a result, a platoon of M4A2s (reported as ‘almost half of the available tanks’ by Neiman) was attached to the convoy including one with a dozer-blade. When the tanks arrived at the scene, the tree was still in place, and the dozer tank went to move it. The convoy then came under small arms fire again (believed to be just from mere rifles), but the assailants were sent running by the 75mm guns of the tanks. Several tanks were left there to camp the night, surrounded by some concertina wire with noisemakers attached to them. That same night, the noisemakers were set off and the M4A2s lit up their headlights and fired their machine guns, killing ‘a couple of intruders’. From then on, convoys were escorted by tanks, but these tanks were worn-out. Therefore, they were sent out in sections to this camp from Tianjin or Beiping, so that no tank had to cover the full distance in a single run.
Changing Ownership
The 1st TB was eventually relieved from China and sent to Guam in January 1947, except for Company B. Company B remained in China presumably until May 1947, when the entire Battalion was sent back to the US mainland (except Company A, which presumably stayed in Guam). The KMT was handed control over the 1st TB’s camp, likely in January 1947, and was later given the M4A2s when the new M4A3 (105)s arrived for the 1st TB as replacements (presumably these were for Company B and arrived in January 1947) – consider also that the USMC wanted to phase the tank out anyway. It is unknown, however, whether the KMT ever fielded these M4A2s.
Regardless, at least one M4A2 was captured by the PLA, but exactly when, where, how, and if any others were captured remains unclear.
Number of M4A2s
With the 1st TB: In 1944, the average USMC Tank Battalion would have had 46 tanks, but it is unlikely that by 1947 the 1st TB fielded this many. Tanks, especially larger vehicles such as Shermans, are known to have been particularly strained by the Chinese climate, meaning that many would have needed serious repairs. (For an example of the Chinese climate’s effects on tanks, see the Panzer I in KMT service). Seven tanks were serviceable after the Battle of Okinawa, which may give a very rough indication on numbers. Neiman’s memoirs seem to indicate there to have been no less than a dozen tanks. With the KMT: When the tanks were given to the KMT, they almost certainly did not come with spare parts and maintenance equipment. This means that of the tanks left by the 1st TB, only some of them are likely to have been serviceable, and for how long these tanks could be kept running is unclear. Nota bene – There is no evidence that the KMT even used these tanks at all. With the PLA: Rather like the PLA’s T-26 M1937, it is very possible that there was only one M4A2 which made it into the PLA. Other M4A2s that were left for the KMT may have been destroyed in combat, too badly damaged, or in need of far too many repairs to be pressed back into service.
Where, when, and how
Neiman remarks that the Chinese Communists eventually captured the 1st TB’s camp after it was given to the KMT, which he believes explains the M4A2 in the Beijing Tank Museum (see below). However, this may not necessarily account for every M4A2’s loss, seeing as though there must have been more than one.
The PLA did not come to control Beiping and Tianjin until January 1949 (as part of the Pingjin Campaign, November 1948 – January 1949), meaning that if the KMT fielded these tanks (indeed, a large ‘if’), then the M4A2s could have been captured at any point between May 1947 (when the 1st TB withdrew) and October 1949 (when the Chinese Civil War ‘ended’), and at any possible front.
However, with regards to the only known M4A2 in PLA service, “012403”, it is most likely that the tank was captured directly from the 1st TB’s former base(s), like Neiman suggests for the one in the Beijing Tank Museum, which is likely to be the very same tank (see below).
M4A2 ‘012403’ of the PLA
One sole photo shows M4A2 “012403” of the PLA’s East China Field Army in Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, circa October 1st, 1949. The tank is on a local parade for the proclamation of the People’s Republic of China (the main parade took place in Beijing), and the vehicle’s markings reflect this. All PLA tanks around this time appear to have been marked with the large ‘8-1 star’ (typically on the turret), and the six-digit serial number stencilled on the vehicle in white (typically on the hull). It is unclear if the tank was repainted to the common ‘PLA tank green’, but quite probable given the other decorations.
Some of the vehicle’s technical features (such as the radio mount) are hard to see, not only because of the low resolution of the image, but also because the men on the tank obscure them. Nevertheless, the tank also appears to have some type of box attached to the rear of the engine deck – likely a locally-built stowage box set, perhaps for fuel cans. This remains a mystery, however.
012403’s Main Gun
Whilst ‘012403’ clearly has a heavy machine gun mounted on the turret rear (almost certainly an M2 .50cal), it does not appear to have the standard main gun. There is something in its place which resembles a gun of a much smaller caliber.
Exactly what this new gun is has attracted some debate, with suggestions including: 1. A second M2 .50cal machine gun in a non-standard mount. 2. A 20mm gun of some sort. 3. A Ha-Go’s 37mm gun. 4. A dummy gun for parade purposes. Again, the quality of the image makes it very difficult to suggest any of these with any degree of certainty.
Close analysis of the photo suggests that the original M34A1 mantlet is in place, thus the most likely conclusion is that the gun is simply a dummy gun for the parade. Having established that the gun is a dummy, with part of the original mantlet in place, this means that the M4A2 Sherman in the Beijing Tank Museum is almost certainly ‘012403’ (see below).
It is unclear why the main gun might have been modified. It is possible that the gun was damaged during a battle, whether in service with the USMC, KMT, or PLA. However, more likely is that ‘012403’ may have had its original main gun removed by the KMT and taken as a spare part, or destroyed by the KMT to prevent the PLA from capturing and reusing the vehicle. ‘012403’ may never have actually been operational with the KMT at all, because when the USMC left it behind, it could have been wrecked beyond their repair capabilities but needed scuttling all the same. This may also explain the lack of evidence for the KMT use of the M4A2s. PLA engineers, nonetheless, may have decided and been able to repair at least one M4A2 and replace the missing main gun with something – as mentioned, most likely a dummy gun.
General Motors 6046 twin inline diesel engine; 375 hp (280 kW)
Transmission
Spicer manual synchromesh transmission, 5 forward and 1 reverse gears
Maximum speed
22–30 mph (35–48 km/h)
Suspension
Vertical Volute Spring (VVSS)
Armament (Standard)
Main: 75mm Tank Gun M3 Sec: 1x Browning M2HB 50. cal (12.7mm), 2 x cal.30 (7.62 mm) Browning M1919A4
Number in Service
Unknown
Artist’s rendition of the M4A2 ‘012403’ of the PLA’s East China Field Army in Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, circa October 1st, 1949. The only known photo of the Chinese use of an M4A2 Sherman. This one is in PLA service in Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, circa October 1st 1949. Source: xdza.gov.cn
M4A2 in the Beijing Tank Museum
There is an M4A2 on display in the Beijing Tank Museum, which is missing its main gun. This tank used to have a barrel of an M4A2(76) fixed in place (probably captured during the Korean War 1950-1953, seeing as though China would not have come into contact with such a gun elsewhere), but this has since been removed by the museum. It is also painted in US livery, but the markings do not match ‘102632’ of the 1st TB in Tianjin. The tank was also fitted with a T6 flotation device, as evidenced by weldpoints across the tank (see photos). The sum of these details indicate that the tank has been inaccurately restored.
Regardless, it is certain that this is one of the M4A2s left behind by the 1st TB. Again, Neiman remarks that the Chinese Communists eventually captured the 1st TB’s camp after it was handed over to the KMT, which explains where this M4A2 came from. No M4A2s are known to have been fielded in Korea by the US, thus ruling out the idea that it was captured there like other vehicles in the museum such as the M26 Pershing, M4A3E8, M24 Chaffee, M36 Jackson, M19 GMC, among others. The tank being sourced otherwise, such as through the Lend-Lease programme, is impossible (see below).
If the US colors were original, it would affirmatively indicate that the KMT never used the tank, and that it could have been beyond their repair capabilities and scuttled. When the Beijing museum restores tanks, it is known to usually keep the tanks in the colors of their last user, even if the exact scheme is slightly wrong (for example, some PLA Type 58s were painted in anachronistic three-tone camouflage). Therefore, it could then be argued that this tank was never used by the KMT because it retained its US colors. The upshot of this hypothesis is that the original main gun may have therefore been taken by the KMT as a spare for serviceable vehicles, or even destroyed as part of a scuttling effort. As mentioned, this could well be the case for ‘012403’, too. However, this hypothesis rests on the flimsy assumption that the museum restored it accurately – to be clear it seems odd that the tank would have been repainted into US colours, in contrast to other vehicles in the museum, such as the Chi-Ha tanks, M3A3 and M5A1 Stuarts, which retained their PLA colors – but this M4A2 seems to be an exception, especially considering that the paint scheme does not match ‘102632’.
As a result, the more likely theory is that the tank is ‘012403’ itself because of the distinctive missing main gun. The upshot of this is that ‘012403’ therefore definitely had a dummy gun placed into the remainder of the original barrel for the parade as opposed to being fitted with a new main gun. Further conclusions are difficult to make with such scant evidence. It also remains unclear why this tank, and not others, was repainted into US colors, when other tanks retained their PLA colors. M4A2 on display in the Beijing tank museum. Source: flamesofwar.com Different view of the above, with evidence of a T6 flotation device having been fitted, as highlighted in red. Source: the.shadock.fr Different view of the above, at an earlier point in time. The vehicle also has evidence of a T6 flotation device on the rear right-side Source: the.shadock.fr The same M4A2 as above, but with the 76mm barrel added. It is believed that this was part of an inaccurate restoration using a gun captured in the Korean War. Source: “The Tank Division of the Chinese People’s Liberation Army 1945-1949” by Zhang Zhiwei. M4A2 ‘102632’ of the USMC’s 1st TB in Tianjin, date unknown. Note that the markings do not match the M4A2 in the Beijing Tank Museum. Source: com-central.net M3A3 Stuart in the Beijing Tank Museum, which retained its PLA colors. Source: Beijingman.blogspot
Lend-Lease Programme?
M4A2s cannot originally have come to China via Burma as part of the Lend-Lease programme to the Kuomintang, because no M4A2s were included in this. Moreover, the M4A4 Shermans left operational in Burma were taken back by the US as part of an attempt to avoid escalation of hostilities in China leading up to the resumption of the Civil War in 1946.
On the other hand, 4,100 M4A2 Shermans were sent to the USSR, but it is unlikely that this is where the PLA got any M4A2 from, as the USSR did not deal arms to the Chinese Communists until 1950 due to Soviet policy on the Chinese Civil War. The USSR is, however, reported to have given the PLA weapons captured during the Soviet occupation of Manchuria including small arms and even Japanese tanks.
Conclusions
The KMT was given an unknown number of M4A2 Shermans from the USMC’s 1st TB circa 1947. These tanks were worn out and perhaps beyond KMT’s repair capabilities, meaning that the KMT might have never even used them. A single M4A2 is known to have been in PLA service – ‘012403’, which was probably captured near Tianjin. This tank has dummy gun stuck in the remains of the original barrel most likely for parade purposes. This M4A2 eventually found its way to the Beijing Tank Museum, probably following Soviet arms sales to the PLA in the 1950s, at which point much materiel captured during the Civil War, including Japanese tanks, were phased out. The tank was inaccurately restored with US colors for an unknown reason whilst at the museum. As such tentative conclusions suggest, further sources on the Chinese use of M4A2s are wanting.
Links, Resources & Further Reading
“The Tank Division of the Chinese People’s Liberation Army 1945-1949” by Zhang Zhiwei
“MacArthur in Japan: The Occupation: Military Phase: Volume I Supplement (Reports of General MacArthur)” by Douglas MacArthur
“Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War, 1946-1950” by Odd Arne Westad
“Tanks on the Beaches: A Marine Tanker in the Pacific War” by Robert M. Neiman xdza.gov.cn
The author extends his thanks to Adam Pawley, Leigh Cole, and Stephen Wisker for their help on sources on the USMC’s 1st Tank Battalion, and Saúl García for comments on the technical features of M4A2s.
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Kingdom of Belgium/State of Katanga/Republic of the Congo
Armored Car – 2 Built
For many colonial powers, the period following World War Two was very hard. After the war, these nations faced crippling debt, austerity, huge damage to infrastructure needing repair and restoration of their exhausted military. Belgium, having been occupied by the Germans since 1940 until late in 1944 was no different. Their colonial possession of Congo was supposed to be decolonialised in keeping with post-war decolonisation efforts.
The Belgian Congo (modern-day Democratic Republic of Congo), as a colony, had been very badly treated under Belgian rule. Despite efforts throughout the 1950’s to maintain order, the nation was progressively descending into chaos with major demonstrations in Leopoldville up to independence in June 1960. The neighboring colonies of Ruanda-Urundi (modern day Rwanda and Burundi) were not granted independence until July 1962.
Descent Into Anarchy
Within days of gaining its independence, the country fell rapidly from chaos into anarchy, completely dashing any hopes for an effective self-governed post-colonial nation. Elements of the new Congolese National Army (known as CNA’ or, more correctly, the ‘ANC’ Armee Nationale Congolaise’) mutinied and severe ethnic and tribal violence erupted. The former colonial power of Belgium sent troops primarily to protect white civilians without having sought permission from the new government of the Congo under President Joseph Kasuvubu and his Prime Minister, Patrice Lumumba. This military intervention by Belgium was despite a resolution from the United Nations in July calling for a total withdrawal of Belgian forces.
Not long afterward, the southern province of Katanga (with Belgian support) declared independence in July and then the province of South Kasai also seceded in August. Flag of the State of Katanga, note the crosses. Image: Wikimedia
Forces from Organisation des Nations Unies au Congo (ONUC), consisting of troops from many UN countries, were supposed to detain any foreign mercenary forces they encountered during their mission. The mining-rich provinces of Katanga and South Kasai (both of which still retained major Belgian mining interests) had been recruiting mainly white mercenaries from South Africa and Rhodesia to assist in their independence efforts.
In September 1961, Operation Morthor had been launched by the UN and went badly wrong leading to the Siege of Jadotville where Katangese forces supported by mercenaries fought Irish UN peacekeeping troops, taking numerous prisoner. Perhaps as a result of the failure of the UN involvement and efforts to crush the Katanga revolt, in November 1961, the UN rejected the Katangese claim of independence and finally, fully sided with the government forces. In December 1962, even Belgian support had waned and it finally withdrew support for Katanga. By the end of 1962, the UN and Katangese forces were fighting in the city of Elisabethville. Fighting continued up until the end of January 1963, when the leader of the rebel state Moise Tshombe surrendered at Kolwezi. Despite this, Belgian forces still fought in the Congo on and off until 1978.
During their time as a colonial power and following the brokered peace, Belgium left behind military equipment including various armored vehicles. It is not known if the M8 Greyhounds which were eventually used by Katangese forces came directly from these post-colonial stocks or were part of American aid to President Mobutu but wherever they came from they were put to use by the rebels.
The M8 Greyhound
The Armored Car M8 Greyhound was an American vehicle, produced by the Ford Motor Company for the American Military from 1943. It was a 6×6 armored car, powered by a Hercules JXD 6 cylinder 4-cycle inline gasoline engine rated at 110 hp, giving the vehicle a top speed of 55 mph (89 km/h).
Main armament of M8 consisted of the 37mm Gun M6, mounted in a fully rotatable turret. There was also a coaxial and box mounted Browning .30 Cal (7.62 mm machine gun, as well as Browning M2 .50 Cal (12.7 mm), mounted on the turret. The crew consisted of four men; commander/loader, gunner, driver and assistant driver.
The armoured car remained in service with the US Army until the end of the Second World War, by which time it was considered obsolete. As such it was given to numerous countries as part of military aid schemes. In this capacity, it has served for many years and is still in service with multiple armies worldwide.
The Modifications to the M8
At least two M8 Greyhound armoured cars are known to have been modified for use during this messy and convoluted civil conflict and featured several modifications to the turret. It is highly unlikely that any documented evidence remains as to the work done, by whom, or how much it cost. It is not clear if there was a particular design being followed either. Both designs follow the same principle of raising the turret for improved visibility and mounting the gun as high as possible. Photo: Overvalwagen.com
M8 Greyhound specifications
Dimensions (L-w-h)
4.64m x 2.97m x 1.94 m (15’3″ x 9’9″ x 6’4″ ft.in)
Total weight, battle ready
8.6 short tons (7.8 tons)
Crew
4 (driver, commander/radio, gunner, loader)
Propulsion
Hercules JXD 6-cyl gasoline, 110 hp (82 kW)
Suspension
6×6 individual leaf spring
Speed
56 mph (90 km/h)
Range
560 km at medium speed (350 mi)
Armament
Main: 37 mm (1.46 in) M6 QF AT gun
Secondary: cal.50 (12.7 mm) and cal.30 (7.62 mm) Browning M1919
Armor
From 8 to 15 mm (0.31-0.59 in)
Total production
8523 built
Video (starting at 45:05) of a Type 2 M8 Armored Car in combat in Elisabethville
Type 1
The first type of modified M8 Greyhound featured relatively crude roughly cylindrical addition to the turret roof mounting a heavy machine gun and spot lamp. The vehicle retained the original 37mm gun in the turret. Both the machine gun on top of the turret and the original main gun face in the same direction. Only a single photograph of this vehicle is known to exist which displays the white crosses on the hull signifying it is in the hands of the pro-Katangese forces. The modified M8 in service. Photo: Overvalwagen.com Another modified M8 Greyhound of the Katangese Gendarmerie
Type 2
The second type of modification was much more extensive. Featuring a much higher cylinder extending the top of the turret, the cylinder actually starts about halfway down the vertical height of the turret where it is wider than at the roof level. It is not clear if the turret retained its hatches. The original machine gun mounting on the back of the turret was retained even though the new weapon did not use it. In the front half of this large vertical cylinder was a large projection with the vertically curved gun shield behind which was mounted a .30 caliber machine gun. This modified turret was so large that it had space for at least two men side by side. The reason for having the new machine gun face in the opposite direction to the main gun is not clear, although the back of this cylinder appears to be mostly open save for large angular plates functioning perhaps as a means of access. Second type of M8 Greyhound Modified, still in Katangese markings but knocked out by fire from ONUC forces (see the circled penetration marks in the turret). Photo: Courtesy of the Archives of the United Nations
Conclusion
Only two types of modifications are known and at least two vehicles can be confirmed to have been made. A possible third vehicle is seen in photographs with what appears to be additional armour protection over the front wheels with the same type 2 turret modification. It is likely that this is a different vehicle to the other type 2 turret mounting vehicle which could mean that there were several vehicles modified. Rear of the Katangese M8 Greyhound looking at the left-hand side of the modified turret and another penetration mark (white circle) delivered by ONUC forces. Source: Courtesy of the Archives of the United Nations.
Photographic records are very sketchy and there is little documentation to work from. Remarkably, however, despite this, video footage of the second type of Greyhound exists. The footage shows the vehicle being used in combat during the battle for Elisabethville and the very high turret shows its value, allowing the crew to see over the very high hedges in the city to deliver machine gun fire. At least one of Type 2 turreted vehicles is known to have been knocked out after being hit by at least two shells fired by UNOC forces.
No records detailing the final fate of any of these modified vehicles which are assumed to have been either scrapped or returned to their original configuration after the war. Second type of M8 Greyhound, with no armament fitted and possibly abandoned – note the additional protection over the front wheels. Photo: Overvalwagen.com
Links, Resources & Further Reading
Overvalwagen.com
UN Intel. Report 5-0816 ‘MIL INFO – Katanga Area’ – Archives of the United Nations
The M3 Half-track was a workhorse vehicle manufactured by the United States during the Second World War. It was one of the most widely used vehicles of the war, with many derivatives designed and built on the same chassis. The T48 Tank Destroyer. Photo: vn-parabellum.com
Origin
The 57mm Gun Motor Carriage T48 was originally requested by the United Kingdom from the United States as a tank destroyer during the Lend-Lease arrangement between the two countries. The British intended to deploy the vehicle in the Western Desert Campaign.
The T48 was based on the chassis of the trusty M3 Half-Track chassis. The back end was converted to carry a 57mm Anti-Tank Gun M1, 122 rounds of ammunition and the crew. The 57mm Gun was a license built copy of the British Ordnance QF 6 Pounder Anti-Tank Gun.
A prototype vehicle was ordered in April 1942, with production starting that December. Production continued until May 1943, with 962 vehicles built. By this time, however, the 6-Pounder was seen as becoming unsuitable for the Anti-Tank role in the long term. In 1942, the 6pdr (57 mm) gun had proved an adequate anti-tank gun. It could penetrate 74 mm of armor at a range of 1 km. Come 1943, however, German tanks had upgraded their frontal armor again and the heavily armored Tiger tank was now deployed on the battlefield. The 6pdr gun was no longer powerful enough to knock out every enemy tank. The gun became surplus to requirements with the introduction of 75mm cannons.
As such, the vehicle was offered to the Soviet Union as part of the Lend-lease military aid scheme. 650 T48s were received by the Red Army who then designated the vehicle SU-57 (Samokhodnaya ustanovka 57, English: Self-Propelled Carriage). In keeping with the rest of their Self-Propelled Guns and Tank Destroyers. Thirty of these vehicles did remain with the British Army though, the subsequent 282 T48s were split between the US and UK who promptly reverted them back to standard M3A1 Half Tracks by removing the 57mm gun and mount.
Soviet Service
The SU-57, or T48, was the only American or British vehicle to be used in combat solely by the Soviets. This refers to the T48 in its 57mm carrying form, and excludes converted vehicles, or units captured by the Wehrmacht. The Soviets were already happy with American Half-Tracks, having received a total 404 of the standard M2 and M3 Half-Track.
The Soviets formed the SU-57s in separate tank destroyer brigades that consisted of three battalions each with 60 vehicles each. They were also used in separate motorcycle battalions, where they would provide welcome firepower to these lightly armored reconnaissance units. The first SU-57 equipped company to see action was the 16th Separate Tank Destroyer Brigade which took part in the August 1943 Dnepr River Offensive in the Ukraine. In August 1944, the SU-57 equipped 19th Brigade fought during the Baranow bridgehead battles in Poland, some units from this brigade then went on to fight in the Berlin and Prague campaigns in April and May 1945.
The Soviet Union gave 15 SU-57s to the Polish military. The vehicles were used by the 7th Self-Propelled Artillery Battery during the 1945 battles in Poland and Germany.
In operation, the vehicle would take up a hull-down position behind a berm or ridge, with just the gun exposed. They would often be used as a supporting, second line vehicle making use of the 6-Pounders excellent mid to long range performance.
A few of the vehicles did fall into the hands of the Wehrmacht, with a small number being used by the 14 Kompanie, Grenadier Regiment 105 of 72 lnfanterie-Division.
Links, Resources & Further Reading
Osprey Publishing, New Vanguard #11: M3 Infantry Half-Track 1940-73
Osprey Publishing, New Vanguard #247: Soviet Lend-Lease Tanks of World War II
Krause Publications, Standard Catalog of U.S. Military Vehicles. (2nd Edition), David Doyle
Presidio Press, Half-Track: A History of American Semi-Tracked Vehicles, R.P. Hunicutt
An SU-57 covered in Russian snow. Example of a captured T48 in service with the Wehrmacht. Both illustrations by Tank Encyclopedia’s own David Bocquelet.
Other Lend-Lease Tank Destroyers
The Soviet Union also received 52 3-inch GMC M10 Wolverines. A considerably smaller number for reasons unknown. These M10s were formed into two self-propelled artillery regiments known as SAPs (Samokhodno-artilleriyskiy pol). The 1223rd SAP Regiment served with the 29th Tank Corps of the 5th Guards Tank Army, 3rd Belorussian Front during the 1944-45 in Belarus, the Baltics and East Prussia. The 1239th SAP Regiment was the second regiment to be formed with the M10s. They served with the 16th Tank Corps (Later becoming the 9th Guards Tank Corps) of the 2nd Tank Army, 1st Belorussian Front. They served on the 1944-45 Belorussian and Polish Campaigns. Due to their impressive combat performance, the Regiment was honored with the redesignation 387th Guards SAP Regiment.
A small number of 76mm GMC M18 Hellcats were also received. These vehicles were not as popular due to their thin armor, and very few were ordered.
Conclusion
The SU-57 did not make a huge impact to Soviet War effort but they were put to good use and liked by the crews outfitted with the vehicles. It succeeded in filling a, albeit small, gap in the Soviet Union’s armored force while it recovered from the huge losses sustained in Germany’s Operation Barbarossa. It was a capable vehicle that allowed production of the USSR’s own tank destroyers such as the SU-76 and 85 to get back on its feet.
Quite a few of these vehicles survive various museums today. They can be found at the Central Museum of the Great Patriotic War 1941 – 1945, Park Pobedy, Moscow Russia and the Kubinka Tank Museum, Russia. One is also on display at the Polish Army Museum, Warsaw.
An article by Mark Nash SU-57 from the separate battery of the 4th Motorcycle Regiment/6th Tank Army. Romania, Summer 1944. Photo: www.armchairgeneral.com SU-57 from the 4th Motorcycle Regiment in Bucharest, August 1944. Photo: vn-parabellum.com
SU-57 (T48) specifications
Dimensions
5.62 x 1.94 x 2.02 m (18’5″ x 6’4″ x 6’8″)
Total weight, battle ready
Aprx. 10 tonnes
Crew
4 (Driver, Commander, Gunner, Loader)
Propulsion
White 160AX/IHC RED 450, 147/160 bhp
Armament
57mm Anti-Tank Gun M1 (2.24 in), 122 Rounds
Armor
6 to 12 mm (0.24-0.47 in)
Total production
962, 650 sent to USSR
For information about abbreviations check the Lexical Index
Dominion of Canada (1940-1943)
Light Tank – 236 Operated
Introduction
A single Canadian Army tank battalion had been authorized for deployment on the WW1 Western Front, but the Canadian tank crews in the UK were not trained in time to see action before the war ended on 11th November 1918.
This early Royal Canadian Amoured Corps was demobilized in 1919. During the Winnipeg General Strike, the Canadian Government looked into buying some tanks to be deployed on the streets, after reading about the American and British Governments using tanks as a deterrent in the 1930s Depression era worker strikes. The public unrest in Winnipeg finished before any tanks were delivered.
Driver and commander positions in the Canadian Army M1917 training tank. The turret gun has been moved to point to the rear. (caption: Jack and Ernie Camp Borden August 1941)
During the 1920s, the only armored vehicles in the Canadian Army were a few armored cars that had been shipped back to Canada after WW1.
The first step towards armored mechanization of the Canadian Army was the purchase of tracked machine gun carriers. In 1935, the Cavalry began to introduce armored cars fitted with machine guns.
War is coming. We need tanks
In 1938, the Canadian Army realized that they would need to reform the Tank Corps. Tank Battalions began to be formed from established Infantry regiments.
A Canadian Tank School was opened at Camp Borden in Ontario. Later, its name was changed to the Canadian Armoured Fighting Vehicles Training Centre (CASF). It still did not have lots of tanks in which to train future tank crews. A few tracked machine gun carriers, a British Light Dragon Mk III and two Vickers light tanks were all it had at its disposal.
The tank school devised a training device that mimicked a tank turret, which jolted and pitched like one in a tank crossing open country. Students could fire an air-rifle at targets on a sand pit to simulate firing a tank gun. They would look through telescopic sights to find the target, whilst using hand wheels to rotate the turret. Replica pill boxes in the sand would light up simulating the flashes of machine guns firing at the tank. A pulley system would move the board up and down and pull small tank targets across the sand. It was called ‘Rypa’.
In late 1939, when war in Europe broke out, the School was slightly better off: it now could boast that it had 14 British Vickers Mk VIB light tanks on its strength. This was not enough. The Canadian AFV Training Centre at Borden was expected to train 200 men at a time. They needed more vehicles. Some of the Canadian M1917 were given a camouflage livery. When being driven along a road the gun was turned towards the rear so the commander could open his hatch. The tank crew are from the Ontario Regiment. They are on parade in Oshawa. The WWI cenotaph on Simcoe St is in the background.
In June 1940, Colonel Frank Worthington informed the Canadian National Defence Headquarters of a number of surplus M1917 6-ton tanks in the United States. The U.S. agreed to sell 250 of the tanks. Colonel Worthington ordered 236 M1917 tanks on 21st September 1940, in order to increase the amount of tracked vehicles available to train Canadian Army tank crews.
The Neutrality problem
At the time of the deal, the United States was a neutral nation and could not officially provide weapons to any of the combatants. The Canadian Government was sold these old WW1 era tanks as ‘scrap metal’. They paid the going rate for scrap metal: each tank only cost $240US. The first M1917 tanks arrived at camp Borden on 8th October 1940, transported by train from a parking lot at Fort George G. Meade in Maryland. Tank crew training could now start in earnest.
The Canadian opposition party heard about the deal and tried to embarrass the Government in Parliament and raised a question about the purchase. They received the formal reply that the train delivering 1,500 tons of scrap metal had arrived at the Camp Borden Iron Foundry. No further questions were asked. M1917 training tanks at Camp Borden, August 1941, Canada
Tank crew training
The shock of the fall of France and the success of the German armored divisions led to the formation of the Canadian Armoured Corps in August 1940. There were lots of recruits that needed to be trained as tank crews. For nearly two years, the M1917 proved to be a useful tank training vehicle. The M1917 6-ton light tanks lacked suspension, so gave a very hard jarring ride when students drove across country. They had a tendency to suffer from mechanical breakdowns frequently and some caught fire. The upside was this gave the students more practical experience in tank maintenance and repair. Tank crew students had to learn flag and hand signals, as the tanks were not equipped with radios. Canadian M1917 tank crew under training at Camp Borden. Judging by the soldiers’ berets, they could be the Essex Regiment (Tank) from Windsor, Ontario, Canada.
The 9 mph (15 km/h) slow speed of the M1917 6 ton tank made tactical training difficult, and the main function of the vehicle was to familiarize crews in driving and maintaining tracked vehicles. Tank gunnery was also taught using the caliber .30 (7.62 mm) Browning M1919 tank machine gun and the 37 mm (1.46 in) M1916 cannon.
Many Canadian tank crew drivers were recruited from the tracked vehicle cat-skinner’ drivers working for western Canadian construction crews, drag-line men, clamshell men, bulldozer drivers, and farm hands from the farms of Manitoba and Saskatchewan, who knew how to look after their tractor engines. If one of these men was working in a part of the country over 20 miles (32 km) from the nearest town, he could not call a garage when something went wrong. He had to fix it himself. The first M1917 tank in the photograph is armed with a 37 mm M1916 cannon, whilst the others are fitted with .30 cal Browning M1919 tank machine guns.
The Canadian tank crews were trained using a very unique method. Camp Borden was off limits to civilians, but it was full of wildlife. Local farmers and hunters would ignore the no entry signs to hunt bear, deer, elk and moose. The tank crews were instructed to hunt these hunters using their tanks and pretend that they were enemy tanks. Live ammunition was not used against these poachers.
Colonel Worthington mentioned to his son, ‘One of my cherished memories is walking down the concrete road through camp to the one-room school near the Air Force area one fall day, and seeing a Renault tank emerge from the bush area with a deer carcass draped over the tank’s gun, and two disgruntled poachers in plaid shirts marching in front with their hands on top of their heads. Pretend prisoners of war. The soldier in the tank’s turret was beaming like an Olympic champion. The officers’ mess and the sergeants’ mess subsequently dined on venison.’
In 1943, many of the M1917 tanks were sold off to private industry and to farmers. There are only two Canadian M1917 6-ton light tanks left: one is located at the Canadian Forces Base Museum at Borden, Ontario, Canada and the other is on display at the Canadian War Museum Major Gordon Churchill, Fort Garry Horse, 1940 undergoing tank crew training at Camp Borden. He served overseas in WW I from 1916 to 1919 as a Vickers Machine Gunner. During WW2, he served 1939-45 with the Fort Garry Horse and Commanding Officer (Lieutenant Colonel) 1st Canadian Carrier Regiment in North West Europe.(Source:Library and Archives Canada )
Comment
Andrew Butcher, Canada – I spoke to a fellow whose brother off-loaded these at the railhead, and he used them in training. Broke down all the time, they’d head out with five and come back with two. Good maintenance trainers!
Sources
Old Photos: Lord Strathcona’s Horse (Royal Canadians) Regimental collection and US National Armor and Cavalry Museum.
Early Armour in Canadian Service (Service Publications, Ottawa, ON, 2009)
The Generals: The Canadian Army’s Senior Commanders in the Second World War (Stoddart Publishing Co. Ltd)
‘Tanks for the Memories’ article by Peter Worthington, Calgary Sun, Sunday, August 19, 2012
US M1917 tanks in the Canadian Army, Popular Science, January, 1941
Mr Charles R. Lemons – retired curator of the US Cavalry and Armour Museum
Mr Len Dyer – US National Cavalry and Armour Restoration Shop
Mr Clark Ward – US National Cavalry and Armour Restoration Shop The M1917 on Tank-Hunter.com The M1917 on Wikipedia The M1917 on Military Factory The M1917 on CanadianSoldiers.com
Specifications
Dimensions (L x W x H)
4.88 (4.02 without tail) x 1.71 x 2.14 m
(16’0″/13’2″ x 5’7″ x 7’0″)
.30 cal (7.62 mm) Marlin machine gun or
M1919 .30 cal (7.62 mm) Browning machine gun (238 rounds)
Armament Male tank
37 mm (1.46 in) M1916 cannon
Armor
6 – 22 mm (0.24-0.86 in)
Total production
236
US built M1917 Light Tank armed with a caliber .30 Marlin machine gun.
Canadian Army M1917 Light Tank armed with a .30 M1919 Browning tank machine gun
M1917 Light Tank armed with a 37 mm M1916 cannon. It could fire high explosive HE rounds and armor piercing AP rounds.
M1917 Signals Tank with non-rotating turret, that had room for a radio and maps. It did not have a weapon.
Gallery
US M1917 light tanks arriving at the Canadian Armoured Corps Training Centre, Camp Borden, Ontario, October 1940. Vehicle in the foreground is a signals command tank variant lacking a rotating turret.
Canadian M1917 tank train arriving at Camp Borden
US M1917 light tanks arriving in Canada October 1940. They are being towed off the railway flat back wagon.
Colonel F.F. Worthington inspecting M1917 light tanks supplied by the United States Army to the Canadian Armoured Fighting Vehicle Training Centre, Camp Borden, Ontario, October 1940. The hand crank location can be observed with the rear skid down.
Canadian M1917 light tanks being unloaded from the railway flatback trucks. Not all of the tanks could move under their own power. Some had to be towed off by other tanks using chains.
This photograph was taken on 10th October 1940. M1917 tanks, recently-unloaded from the rail cars and organized at Camp Borden, Ontario Canada. Here, according to the Toronto Star reporter, mechanics adjust the engines of 180 tanks that arrived that day. Another 34 tanks were on their way via rail flat cars. The tanks were towed to the site with the help of army trucks. On the Ford truck, there is written in chalk, “The Pride of the West, Fort Garry Horse”. (Source :Toronto Star/ Toronto Public Library)
Surviving Tanks
Restored Canadian M1917 6-ton light tank at the Base Borden Military Museum. Ontario, Canada.
Surviving M1917 6-ton light tank at the Canadian War Museum, Ottawa, Canada (photo: W.E.Storey)
Many people call this tank the M4A3E8 -The Easy 8. The designations M4E8, M4A1E8, M4A2E8 or M4A3E8 only officially applied to prototype vehicles used to test the new HVSS (Horizontal Volute Spring System) suspension. Its experimental E8 designation led to the ‘Easy Eight’ nickname for Sherman’s so equipped. Many websites say it was because this tank was powered by a V8 engine. This is wrong. Not all the Sherman tanks given this experimental designation were powered by V8 engines.
The experimental code E8 refers to a tank fitted with Horizontal Volute Spring Suspension (HVSS) system, with wider tracks. The only production Sherman tank that had an official E designation was the up-armoured 75mm Gun Tank M4A3E2(W) – the so called Jumbo. In the American army, in the 1940’s, the letter E in the phonetically alphabet was known as ‘Easy’.
The U.S. adopted the Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet during 1941, in order to standardize systems among all branches of its armed forces. The U.S. alphabet became known as Able Baker, after the words for A and B. Today, in the 1951 International Radiotelephony Spelling Alphabet, commonly known as the NATO phonetic alphabet, the word ‘Echo’ is used when referring to the letter E.
The ‘E8’ HVSS suspension modification was an effort to improve the ride and increase the mobility of the Sherman tanks. They had progressively become heavier with increased armor and a bigger 76 mm (3 in) gun. The HVSS system used four wheels per bogie instead of two, which allowed the installation of wider tracks: 23 inches (58.42c m) compared to the normal 16 inches (40.66 cm). It did give better performance on soft ground and allowed for a smoother ride. Lord Strathcona’s Horse (Royal Canadians), 2nd Armoured Regiment, Royal Canadian Armoured Corps (RCAC) tank crew with their M4A3(76)W HVSS Sherman, ‘Argyle II’ in Korea
What does the letter ‘W’ stand for?
The letter ‘W’ referred to the fire resistant wet stowage containers for the 76 mm (3 in) shells. The ammunition storage in the new tanks was improved by surrounding the racks with water and ethylene glycol-filled jackets. This was meant to reduce the probability of explosion in the event of penetration of the armor by enemy fire. The tanks equipped with this protection system were designated “Wet”. ‘Cheetah’ Canadian M4A3(76)W HVSS Sherman Tank used in the Korea War armed with a 76 mm gun. Notice White Star is still visible under the circle Squadron Identity marker that was painted on top.
The main gun
The tank’s main gun was the long barreled 76 mm L/55 M1A2 fitted into the T23 turret, which could penetrate 143 millimeters (5.6 in) of unsloped rolled homogeneous armor at 100 meters (110 yd) and 97 millimeters (3.8 in) at 1,000 meters (1,100 yd) using the usual M79 round.
High-Velocity Armor Piercing (HVAP) ammunition, standardized as the M93, became available in August 1944 for the 76 mm gun. The projectile contained a tungsten core penetrator surrounded by a lightweight aluminum body, which gave it a higher velocity and more penetrating power.
One advantage that the M4A3(76) had in Korea, as opposed to WWII, was the ready availability of this High Velocity Armor Piercing ammunition. Although tank duels were rare, these shells could penetrate the Communist’s T-34/85 tank’s frontal sloping armor at normal combat ranges. The Sherman’s basic ammo load was determined by the tactical situation on the ground. The normal chosen load would consist of 41 rounds of high explosive shells, 15 rounds of White Phosphorous, 7 rounds of HVAP and 7 standard armor piercing rounds. Korean War tankers often carried many additional boxes of machine gun ammo on the exterior of their tanks. M4A3(76)HVSS of the US 72nd Heavy Tank Battalion of the 2nd Infantry Division in Korea in September 1950 fitted with T84 wide tracks
The Korean War Canadian Easy 8 Tank
In 1945, Canada left almost all its wartime vehicles in Europe rather than paying to ship them back to Canada. What little armor Canada retained was a mixture of wartime Achilles tank-destroyers as well as Grizzly and Stuart tanks which were used for training the new post WW2 tank crews.
In 1946, Canada purchased 294 M4A2(76)W HVSS Sherman Tanks from the US at the very reasonable price of $1,460 each. They had originally been intended for export to the Soviet Union under Lend-Lease, until the end of the war in Europe halted that program. These Shermans remained in Canada, where they were used as training tanks. These tanks were given DND (Department of National Defence) CFR (Canadian Forces Registration) Numbers 78-693 through 78-992. About 60 units have survived, and are on display as museum pieces and monuments throughout Canada. Data indicates that this batch of Sherman tanks were built between March 1945 through to May 1945. Canadian M4A3(76)W HVSS Easy 8 Sherman Tank in Korea
By spring 1950, Stalin believed the strategic situation had changed. The Soviets had detonated their first nuclear bomb in September 1949, American soldiers had fully withdrawn from Korea, the Americans had not intervened to stop the Communist victory in China, and Stalin calculated that the Americans would be less willing to fight in Korea considering the relatively small strategic significance of the country. In April 1950, Stalin gave Kim Jong Il permission to invade the South under the condition that Mao would agree to send reinforcements if they were needed. Stalin made it clear that Soviet forces would not openly engage in combat, to avoid a direct war with the Americans. At dawn on Sunday, 25 June 1950, the North Korean People’s Army crossed the 38th parallel in supposed response to South Korean troops attacking the North Koreans. The South Koreans did not have any tanks, anti-tank weapons, or heavy artillery which could halt a full-scale invasion. In addition, the South Koreans committed their forces in a piecemeal fashion, which resulted in the routing of the South Korean troops in a matter of days.
On 25 June 1950, the United Nations Security Council unanimously condemned the North Korean invasion of the Republic of Korea, with UN Security Council Resolution 82. The US rushed troops to Korea. Other United Nations forces started to arrive in South Korea to help the Americans, including the Canadians. The North Korean forces were gradually pushed back towards the Chinese Border.
On 25th October 1950 Communist Chinese troops crossed the border to help the North Korean forces.
With the outbreak of war in Korea in 1950, Canada decided to deploy an armored unit to support operations during the conflict. The first unit was a composite tank squadron, fielded as half A Squadron, Lord Strathcona’s Horse. At first, the Canadian anticipated that M10 Achilles tank destroyers, equipped with 17 pounders, would be used by their tank squadrons. The tank squadron was thus equipped with the M10’s when they landed in Puson, Korea on May 4th, 1951.
On landing, the decision was made to switch the Achilles tank destroyers for American M4A3(76)W HVSS Shermans. These tanks came from US Army and United States Marine Corps stocks already positioned in Korea. The Shermans came equipped with US radios, but the Canadian crews salvaged their No.19 sets from the M10 Achilles and retrofitted them into the borrowed tanks. Over time, extra armor was added to the tank’s hull and turret in the way of spare tracks. Some tanks were fitted with a spotlight on the turret. Another key modification was to move the .50cal mount on the turret from the back to the front of the commander’s hatch, which happened in late 1951. Some tanks from the USMC stocks had the 2 piece split commanders hatch. The now redundant M10 Achilles tank destroyers were shipped to Japan, then to the UK to be given to NATO allies.
The initial loan of 20 tanks were first crewed by the now named C Squadron of the Lord Strathcona’s Horse, which served in with the 25th Canadian Infantry Brigade. The Strathconas fielded the tank squadron rotations from 1951 till April 1954 with respective squadrons C Sqn, B Sqn , A Sqn, then to D Sqn of the Royal Canadian Dragoons. Each Squadron had 20 tanks and was comprised of four tank troops, which in turn had 4 tanks each. The Squadron headquarters would operate the four remaining tanks. This meant that the 3rd Tank Troop of D Squadron, Royal Canadian Dragoons would comprise of four M4A3(76)W HVSS Tanks (M4A3E8). This did not mean that Royal Canadian Armoured Corps four tank squadrons in Korea had access to 80 US Sherman tanks, since the Americans only loaned 20 tanks to the Canadian Forces. These tanks were issued to squadrons on a rotation basis. So when the tanks of C Squadron, the Lord Strathcona’s Horse returned from a tour of duty, they would hand them over to D Squadron, Royal Canadian Dragoons.
In the end, the Chinese and North Korean troops managed to gradually push the South Korean and UN Forces back to what is now known as the DMZ line (Demilitarized Zone) along the 38th Parallel. A stalemate ensued as troops on both sides dug in. A final armistice agreement was signed on 27 July 1953, eventually ending the service of the Canadion M4’s in Korea on April; 2954. The 20 Shermans were returned back to the Americans in November 1954.
Royal Canadian Dragoon’s D Squadron M4A3(76)W HVSS Sherman tank called ‘Dalmatian’ in Korea
War time reports
Canadian Army report – ‘From the tanker’s standpoint the M4A3(75)W HVSS (M4A3E8) tank which this battalion is now equipped with has done an excellent job in Korea. However, it does possess limitations which are serious enough to warrant improvement. In general, the basic defect of the tank is its inadequate HVSS suspension system. The major complaint is that the tracks come off too easily when negotiating rough trails or when making sharp turns.’
‘A high degree of skill is required of the driver just to keep the tracks on the tank when operating over typical Korean terrain. The track itself are not strong enough to withstand the Russian type wooden box mine which is used in large numbers by the enemy. It is felt that a more rugged suspension system would withstand the blast effect of all but the multiple type enemy mines. Another criticism leveled at the present track centers around its tendency to loosen up after relatively short periods of operation’
US Army report – ‘Perhaps our greatest difficulty has been mines. North Korean minefields are invariably covered by mortar fire: the result is that usually they are located by tanks and nothing further happens until dark. (The tanks track gets damaged and cannot be recovered or fixed until it it dark). The Russian box mine containing 22lbs of TNT is extremely effective on our tanks. Being made of wood it is difficult to detect.’
‘The North Koreans and Chinese troops lay their mines at various depths so that tanks following the lead tank are blown up. There is no indication that these mines have delay type fuses.’
‘The T-34/85 tank is no problem for our present tanks to handle on an open fight. However in defensive positions dug in and camouflaged they have been very effective. Their 85mm gun will penetrate our M4A3(76)W HVSS Sherman tanks (M4A3E8) on the front slope at ranges up to 500 yards. We did have the deck of a Sherman broken through by a hit from a 120mm mortar shell. We have had no bazooka type weapons fired at us at all.’
‘The M4A3(76)W HVSS Sherman tank (M4A3E8) has been the work horse out here, far more reliable and dependable than the new M26 Pershing tank’ – W.M.Rogers, Lt Col, Armour, Headquarters 70th Tank Battalion (Heavy) Korea.
Canadian tank crew comment – ‘Funny thing is, the Canadians had no troubles with the tracks on the borrowed M4A3E8’s, the crews looked after the tanks quite well, and the drivers kept the track tension tight to avoid these issues. Most of those track issues the Americans had looks to be bad crew maintenance.’
Identification
The most obvious visual way you can tell the difference between the M4A3(76) HVSS Sherman tank and the similar looking M4A2(76) HVSS is that the M4A3(76) HVSS Sherman tank has a rectangular lump of metal sticking up from the rear deck on both sites. This was a deck cover stop. When the engine deck covers were open during maintenance they would rest on this protruding lump of metal rather than flat on the back of the tank. The M4A2(76) HVSS tank has the smaller deck covers on the rear hull and a different exhaust system. Spotting the rear deck cover stops, circled in red, are the easiest way to identify a M4A3(76)W Sherman Tank
The Lord Strathcona’s Horse (Royal Canadians), 2nd Armoured Regiment, deployed three squadrons, A, B and C, to Korea between May 1951 and May 1953. D Squadron was from the Royal Canadian Dragoons. All the tanks in A Squadron were given names that began with the letter A like ‘Argyle II’. All the tanks in B Squadron were given names that began with the letter B like ‘Beowulf’. All the tanks in C Squadron were given names that began with the letter C like ‘Cheetah’ ‘Catherine’ ‘Cassino’. All the tanks in D Squadron were given names that began with the letter D like ‘Dalmatian’ and ‘Dacshund’.
A Squadron Tanks had triangle markings on the side of the turret, B Squadron had square markings and C Squadron had circle markings. The inside was painted black to cover up the US White five pointed star. D squadron was a mixed unit but their Sherman tanks had spare tracks fitted onto the Sherman’s turret, where the Squadron marker would normally be painted. A ‘lazy D’ symbol was painted on the rear of the turret instead. The D was turned 90 degrees. The curve of the D at the bottom and the straight line of the D at the top.
Canadian Sherman M4A3(76)W HVSS tank Beowulf, B Squadron, The Lord Strathcona’s Horse (RC), 2nd Armoured Regiment, Imjin River, Korea, August 1952.
Canadian Sherman M4A3(76)W HVSS tank with markings of ‘Catherine’, C Squadron, Lord Strathcona’s Horse (Royal Canadians), 2nd Armoured Regiment, the Korean War, 16th July 1952.
Canadian Sherman M4A3(76)W HVSS tank Cassino, C Squadron, The Lord Strathcona’s Horse (Royal Canadians), Operation Minden, Korea, September 1951
Gallery
Canadian M4A3(76)W HVSS Sherman tanks of ‘C’ Squadron, Lord Strathcona’s Horse, completing a tour of front-line duty in Korea, 16 July 1952.
‘A’ Squadron Canadian Sherman M4A3(76)W HVSS tanks of the Lord Strathcona’s Horse (Royal Canadians), 2nd Armoured Regiment in Korea
Exhausted tank crews slept whenever they could in Korea. Notice the rear deck cover stop to the right of the soldier’s head
A Squadron, Lord Strathcona’s Horse (Royal Canadians) in maintenance tank park during the Korean War
C Squadron Lord Strathcona’s Horse (Royal Canadians) in the snow during the Korean War
The crews had to cope with very cold winters in Korea. The auxiliary generator acted as a heater in these Shermans, but having the transmission in the crew compartment would have raised the temperature markedly.
Surviving Tanks
Surviving M4A3(76)W HVSS Sherman tank Serial Number 61180 was placed in a public park in Monessen, Pennsylvania, USA
Korean War Veteran M4A3(76)W HVSS Fort Jackson, South Carolina, USA
Preserved M4A3(76)W HVSS Sherman Tank, Ft. Knox, KY, USA
M4A3(76)W HVSS Sherman specifications
Dimensions (LxWxH)
7.54 (without gun) x 2.99 x 2.97 m (24’7″ x 9’8″ x 9’7″)
Track width
0.59 m (1’11” ft.in)
Total weight, battle ready
30.3 tonnes (66,800 lbs)
Crew
5 (commander, driver, co-driver, gunner, loader)
Propulsion
Ford GAA all-aluminum 32-valve DOHC 60-degree, V8 engine, 525 HP, V8 gasoline petrol engine
Maximum speed
40 – 48 km/h (25 – 30 mph) on road
Suspensions
Horizontal Volute Spring Suspension (HVSS)
Range
193 km (120 miles)
Armament
76 mm (3 in) L/55 M1A12 with muzzle brake
cal .50 (12.7 mm) Browning M2HB machine gun
cal.30-06 (7.62 mm) Browning M1919 A4 machine gun
Armor
Maximum 76 mm (3 in)
Sources
United States tanks of WW2 by George Forty
Canadian Cold War Tank History – Anthony Sewards
The Ontario Regiment (RCAC) Museum
W.M.Rogers, Lt Col, Armour, Headquarters 70th Tank Battalion (Heavy) Korea report.
Special thanks to historian Steve Osfield and retired RCAC tank crew member Anthony Sewards Sherman Minutia, tech database (the shadocks) M4A2(76) with HVSS on www.tank-hunter.com
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Many people call this tank the M4A2E8 -The Easy 8. The designations M4E8, M4A1E8, M4A2E8 or M4A3E8 only officially applied to prototype vehicles used to test the new HVSS (Horizontal Volute Spring System) suspension. Its experimental E8 designation led to the ‘Easy Eight’ nickname for Sherman’s so equipped. Many websites say it was because this tank was powered by a V8 engine. This is wrong. Not all the Sherman tanks given this experimental designation were powered by V8 engines.
The experimental code E8 refers to a tank fitted with Horizontal Volute Spring Suspension (HVSS) system, with wider tracks. The only production Sherman tank that had an official E designation was the up-armoured 75mm Gun Tank M4A3E2(W) – the so called Jumbo. In the American army in the 1940’s, the letter E in the phonetical alphabet was known as ‘Easy’.
The U.S. adopted the Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet during 1941 to standardize systems among all branches of its armed forces. The U.S. alphabet became known as Able Baker after the words for A and B. Today, the 1951 International Radiotelephony Spelling Alphabet, commonly known as the NATO phonetic alphabet, uses the word ‘Echo’ when referring to the letter E. To complicate the naming issue, some Canadian Army documents name this tank by its prototype name, the M4A2E8.
The ‘E8’ HVSS suspension modification was an effort to improve the ride and increase the mobility of the Sherman tanks that had progressively become heavier with increased armor and a bigger 76 mm (3 in) gun. The HVSS system used four wheels per bogie instead of two, which allowed tracks that were wider to be installed: 23 inches (58.42cm) compared to the normal 16 inches (40.66cm). It did give better performance on soft ground and allowed for a smoother ride. Royal Canadian Armoured Corps (RCAC) M4A2(76)W HVSS Sherman Tanks of the Essex Regiment (Tank), (Windosr Regiment) 30th (Reserve) Reconnaissance Battalion
Production and Development
The first M4A2 75 mm (2.95 in) Sherman tank was produced in April 1942, with a new General Motors 6046 engine (two GM 6-71 General Motors Diesel engines), welded hull with extra applique protective armor on the hull sides and gunner position (left side of the turret). In total 8,053 tanks were manufactured by May 1944. Early versions of the M4A2(75) had small hatches and protruding drivers’ and co-drivers’ hoods, a 57 degree glacis and dry ammo stowage bins. The rear hull plate was sloped.
A transitional version built by Fisher, the M4A2(75)D, which had a one-piece 47 degree glacis, with large hatches, but it still used dry ammo bins and applique armor. This model was also produced with a diesel GM 6046, 410 hp, used mostly for the British and the USMC. Range was 241 km (150 mi) with 641 liters (170 gal) of fuel (consumption was 279 liters/100 km or 118.6 gal/mi), total weight 31.8 tons, with a 1.01 kg/cm³ ground pressure. The hull frontal glacis was 108 mm (4.25 in) thick.
The M4A2(76)W was the upgunned late variant, of which over 3230 were delivered by May 1945. It was fitted with the modified T23 turret, which housed the M1 L/55 gun, which gave an overall length of 7.57 m (25 feet). With the GM 6046 diesel, and 673 liters (178 gal) of fuel, range was 161 km (100 mi). The weight rose to 33.3 tons. The glacis was at 47 degrees, 108 mm (4.25 in) thick with large hatches. Canadian M4A2(76)W Sherman tank driving along forest tracks at the Camp Petawawa Training Ground in 1963. Notice the wide tracks.
What does the letter ‘W’ stand for?
The letter ‘W’ referred to the fire resistant wet stowage containers for the 76 mm (3 in) shells. The ammunition storage in the new tanks was improved by surrounding the racks with water and ethylene glycol-filled jackets to reduce the probability of explosion in the event of penetration of the armor by enemy fire. The tanks equipped with this protection system were designated “Wet”. By early 1945, the better HVSS suspension and wider tracks was fitted.
The main gun
The tank’s main gun was the long barreled 76 mm (3 in) L/55 M1A2 fitted into the T23 turret, which could penetrate 143 millimetres (5.6 in) of unsloped rolled homogeneous armor at 100 meters (110 yd) and 97 millimetres (3.8 in) at 1,000 meters (1,100 yd) using the usual M79 round.
High-Velocity Armor Piercing (HVAP) ammunition, standardized as M93, became available in August 1944 for the 76 mm gun. The projectile contained a tungsten core penetrator surrounded by a lightweight aluminum body, which gave it a higher velocity and more penetrating power. During training the gun barrel muzzle brake is covered. The tank crew are wearing padded cold weather clothing
The Engine
This Easy 8 Sherman was not powered by a V8 Gasoline (Petrol) engine. The M4A2 version of the Sherman tank was powered by the General Motors 6046D twin diesel engine, a 12-cylinder twin bank version of the General Motors series 71 six cylinder, Roots blower-scavenged, two-stroke diesel. Each six cylinder engine unit displaced 6,965cc, and was separately clutched to a single output shaft, which was itself clutched to the transmission unit. The whole engine weighed 2,323 kg (5,110 lbs) dry weight, and produced up to 410 horsepower at 2,900 rpm with both units running. A total of 10,968 6046D-powered M4A2 Shermans were produced.
The Armor
The lower hull was made of large welded parts, although the bogies were bolted to the hull for easier replacement or repair, and the rounded front was made of three bolted steel plates. Other external parts were either bolted or welded. The upper hull, at first cast, was later welded, with a well-sloped glacis, flat sides and slightly sloped engine compartment roof, making a characteristic tumblehome culminating just above the main turret. The back plating included a rear “U” shaped exhaust muffler, distinctive of the early production. The armor was 76 mm (2.99 in) thick on the nose and upper glacis, 50 mm (1.96 in) on the turret and upper sides and 30 mm (1.18 in) elsewhere.
RCAC M4A2(76)W HVSS Sherman tanks training with Centurion tanks in Canada
Canadian Easy 8 tanks
In 1945, Canada left almost all its wartime vehicles in Europe rather than paying to ship them back to Canada. What little armour Canada retained was a mixture of wartime Achilles tank-destroyers, as well as Grizzly and Stuart tanks which were used for training the new post WW2 tank crews.
In 1946, Canada purchased 294 M4A2(76)W HVSS Sherman tanks from the US at the very reasonable price of $1,460 each. They had originally been intended for export to the Soviet Union under Lend-Lease, until the end of the war in Europe halted that program. These Shermans remained in Canada, where they were used as training tanks. These tanks were given DND (Department of National Defence) CFR (Canadian Forces Registration) Numbers 78-693 through 78-992. About 60 units have survived, and are on display as museum pieces and monuments throughout Canada. Data indicates that this batch of Sherman tanks were built between March 1945 through to May 1945. Cross country training in a Canadian RCAC M4A2(76)W HVSS Sherman tank. Notice the gun barrel is clamped down in the travel lock.
The first batch of new Shermans were sent to the Royal Canadian Armoured Corps School then located at Camp Borden, Ontario. The first Regiment to bring them on strength was the Royal Canadian Dragoons, which were stationed at Camp Borden.
The other regular force units were then allocated their Shermans as well. The first M4A2(76)W HVSS Sherman tanks arrived with the Lord Strathcona’s Horse (Royal Canadians) in March 1947 with 30 of them sent to Camp Wainwright, Alberta. The units began the respective courses to train the new crews on the operation of these vehicles.
The Sherman was only in service with the regular force until 1952, when the new British Centurion Mark IIIs came into service. 274 Centurion Mark III tanks were received in 1952-53. The Sherman tanks were given to the Canadian reserve force ‘militia’ units. The regular army trained on Centurion tanks whilst the reserve force tank crews trained on M4A2(76)W HVSS Sherman tanks, who had previously been using old Grizzly tanks. (The Grizzly tanks were taken out of service in late 1953 and put into storage, then sold off to Portugal.)
In 1954, The Windsor Regiment, 22nd Reconnaissance Regiment became the 22nd Armoured Regiment. The Regiment traded in their Stuart light tanks for the heavier M4A2(76)W HVSS Sherman tank.
These new Sherman’s carried on being used for “militia” training until 1972, when the last ones were taken off strength. These tanks now became surplus and around 50 of them became monuments all over Canada. The rest became hard targets for tank gunnery practice live fire ranges. When the ranges were cleaned up and the hulks were sold for scrap metal.
The Canadian Easy 8 Armoured Personnel Carrier
After WW2, the Canadian Army used de-turreted M4A2(76)W HVSS Sherman tanks as armoured personnel carriers (APC) and unarmored trucks as a temporary solution to the problems of troop transport on the battlefield, whilst Canada was in the process of standardizing an APC design to replace both. The United States M113 armored personnel carrier was eventually chosen as the Canadian government’s preferred vehicle. The Sherman APC was used until it was replaced in the mid 1960’s by the M113. They were also used for tank crew and infantry training.
The Royal Canadian Armoured Corps (School)’s Field Training Section equipment strength in 1963 was 26 Centurions, 12 Sherman M4A2(76) HVSS gun tanks and 22 Sherman APCs. The Canadian Army also operated some Grizzly APCs until 1956 when they were sold to Portugal. They were sometimes know as Grizzly Kangaroos. A Grizzly tank was a standard WW2 Canadian-built M4A1 Sherman tank with some modification first produced in 1943. Canadian Easy 8 Armored Personnel Carrier being followed by a Centurion tank at MTC Meaford, Army Training Area, Ontario
M4A2(76)W HVSS Sherman specifications
Dimensions L W H
6.09 (without gun) x 2.99 x 2.99 m (19’11 x 9’7″ x 9’7″ )
Track Width
0.59 m (1’11” ft.in)
Total weight, battle ready
30.3 tonnes (66,800 lbs)
Crew
5 (commander, driver, co-driver, gunner, loader)
Propulsion
General Motors GM 6046 diesel (conjoined 6-71s)
Maximum speed
40 – 48 km/h (25 – 30 mph) on road
Suspensions
Horizontal Volute Spring Suspension (HVSS)
Range
193 km (120 miles)
Armament
Main: 76 mm (3 in) L/55 M1A2 with muzzle brake
cal .50 (12.7 mm) Browning M2HB machine gun
cal.30-06 (7.62 mm) Browning M1919 A4 (7.62 mm) machine gun
Canadian Sherman M4A2(76)W HVSS “Boss” now on display in Vancouver.
Canadian Sherman M4A2(76)W HVSS now on display at the Ontario RCAC Regiment Museum.
Sherman M4A2(76)W HVSS with markings of ‘A’ Squadron, Fort Gary Horse (Militia) used in Canada for training.
Canadian RCAC M4A2(76)W HVSS Sherman Kangaroo Armoured Personnel Carrier
Canadian RCAC Grizzly Kangaroo Armoured Personnel Carrier
Gallery
A Canadian M4A2(76)W Sherman tank firing its hull machine gun at Camp Petawawa training ground ranges in 1963.
Canadian M4A2(76)W HVSS Sherman tank crews using available cover to ambush the ‘enemy’ on a training exercise.
Sherman M4A2(76)W HVSS tank crews taking part in firing practice at Meaford Range 1966
Surviving Tanks
Ontario Regiment Museum M4A2(76)W with HVSS Sherman Tank
Ontario RCAC Regiment Museum M4A2(76)W with HVSS Sherman Tank serial number 65240
Ontario RCAC Regiment Museum M4A2(76)W with HVSS Sherman Tank Beowulf
M4A2(76)W with HVSS Sherman Tank in Haliburton, Canada
M4A2(76)W with HVSS Sherman Tank in Vancouver, Canada
Fort Garry Horse (Militia) A Squadron Sherman tank Memorial outside McGregor Armoury
Essex Regiment (tank) RCAC
The Essex Regiment (Tank) was established in Windsor, Ontario on 15 December 1936. The Regiment achieved the distinction of being the first unit of the Canadian Army to wear the black beret which was associated with armoured soldiers since 1924 in the British Royal Armoured Corps.
By 1937 the Regiment had 27 officers and 277 other ranks but only a year later, the strength was up to 34 officers and 297 other ranks.
From 11th to the 23rd of July, 1938, 12 members of the Regiment attended Course #1 at the Canadian Armoured Fighting Vehicle School in Borden, Ontario. Here they were introduced to the Carden-Loyd tracked carrier (Canada’s only armoured vehicle at the time) and to the mysteries of armoured warfare.
By 1939, the Regiment was wearing a small First World War style tank on the right sleeve of their uniforms to further distinguish themselves from other, non-tank units. The tanks badge were worn during the Royal Visit Parade in Windsor on 6 June, 1939.
In September 1940, the Essex Regiment (Tank) received the order to stand down from active duty and the Regiment never received an opportunity to deploy as a whole unit. Rather, the soldiers where offered the opportunity to re-enrol in the Regiment proper or to join a different unit. The split was approximately 50/50 with those that departed joining the ranks of Headquarters Squadron 1st Canadian Army Tank Brigade under Brigadier FF Worthington, MC, MM.
Training continued for the Regiment while also supplying a steady stream of men for the Canadian Armoured Corps active service units. By August of 1941 the Regiment had supplied 47 officers and 500 other ranks for the Corps but still no mobilization for the Regiment proper!
On the 27th of January, 1942 the Regiment’s name and role within the Corps changed. They were now the 30th Reconnaissance Battalion (Essex Regiment) and its role changed from tank to reconnaissance or RECCE as it is commonly known. This is just as well because the Essex Regiment (Tank) never had been equipped with tanks! During the Regiment’s life, its role would flip back and forth between tank and reconnaissance many times.
Although the Essex Regiment (Tank) was renamed 30th (Reserve) Reconnaissance Battalion (Essex Regiment) in 1942, the traditional name remained in brackets due to regimental sentiment. In 1949 the Regiment became The Windsor Regiment (RCAC) and trained on the M4A2(76)W HVSS Sherman ‘Easy 8’ at Camp Borden.
“Tank-It” Shirt
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American M4 Sherman Tank – Tank Encyclopedia Support Shirt
Give ’em a pounding with your Sherman coming through! A portion of the proceeds from this purchase will support Tank Encyclopedia, a military history research project.Buy this T-Shirt on Gunji Graphics!
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