Category: Cold War Soviet Vehicles in Foreign Service

Cold War Soviet Vehicles in Foreign Service Modern Swedish Armor

Pansarbandvagn 501

Standard Pbv 501 in Swedish army camouflage, late 1990/early 2000s

Kingdom of Sweden (1994-2008)
Infantry Fighting Vehicle – 5 BMP-1s Purchased For Trials, 350 Purchased For Service And Modernized, 83 Purchased For Spare Parts (438 Total)

The Soviet BMP-1 was and remains a ubiquitous infantry fighting vehicle. The most produced vehicle of its type to this day, with almost 40,000 assembled by the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia during the Cold War, the vehicle was, with a few exceptions, fielded by pretty much all of the Soviet Union’s allies.

With the collapse of the Warsaw Pact, several of these Soviet allies and BMP-1 became much closer to the former Western bloc. The newly reunified Germany inherited the large weapons and armored vehicles stocks of East Germany, including a fleet of more than a thousand BMP-1s. Though a local upgrade program was carried out, in the form of the BMP-1A1 Ost, Germany quickly sold the vast majority of its BMP-1 fleet to European customers interested in acquiring large quantities of surplus infantry fighting vehicles, pretty much off-the-shelf. One of these buyers would be Sweden, which would run its own refit program for the BMP-1. The vehicle was designated Pbv 501 in Swedish Army service.

The Swedish Army and Mechanization in the Early 1990s

At the conclusion of the Cold War, the Swedish Army (Svenska Armén) had a relatively limited fleet of armored vehicles able to carry infantry sections. The only type in any significant service was the Pbv 302, with about 650 vehicles produced. Even then, the vehicle’s production stopped in 1971, and it really was only sufficient to outfit the infantry complement of some armored units.

A Swedish Army Pbv 302. The type would remain in service with the Swedish Army until 2014, being entirely replaced by the CV90 as of today. The Pbv 302 notably served in UN operations in Bosnia and in Kosovo (KFOR). Source: https://www.theworldwars.net/

In practice, the standard transport vehicles in Swedish infantry units were the Tgb 20 (Terrängbil 20) truck and the Bv 206 (Bandvagn 206) tracked articulated all-terrain carrier. In spite of the Bv 206’s positive features, which have resulted in the vehicle continuing in service and having had a successful export record, simply put, it could not fulfil the role of an infantry fighting vehicle The Tgb 20 was a simple truck, and the Bv 206, while tracked and able to mount a machine gun if need be, was not armored.

The Bv 206. It is a potent and capable vehicle able to carry up to 14 infantrymen, far more than the BMP-1’s 8, but it is in no way an infantry fighting vehicle or even an armored personnel carrier. Source: Wikimedia commons

At that time, there was ambition within the Swedish Army to mechanize more of its armored forces. The development of the Strf 9040/CV90 was underway, and the vehicle appeared as a promising future infantry fighting vehicle. However, back then, it had still not entered service, and the possibility of training crew and mechanics to the operation of infantry fighting vehicles before receiving this advanced new vehicle appeared attractive to the Swedish Army.

The German BMPs

A possibility for Sweden to purchase foreign infantry fighting vehicles at an incredibly cheap cost soon emerged from Germany.

NVA Schützenpanzer BMP-1s crossing a river during an exercise. Amphibious capacity was a major aspect of the BMP-1’s design. Source: Pinterest

When first pushed into service in the late 1960s, the BMP-1 was a major addition to the Soviet Red Army’s arsenal, and despite the existence of some previous vehicles, such as the West German HS.30, it is often considered to be the first truly modern Infantry Fighting Vehicle (IFV) to be adopted in massive numbers, at least for the Eastern Bloc. The vehicle could be used to support armored assault in all types of terrains, thanks to its amphibious capacities, and was notably able to carry a section of infantry even in heavily contaminated terrain which would typically be expected after the use of NBC (Nuclear, Biological, Chemical) weapons. Support for accompanying tanks as well as dismounting infantry would be provided by a 73 mm Grom infantry support gun and a Malyutka missile launcher, with four missiles stored in the vehicle.

More than 1,100 BMP-1s (of which a very significant part, or perhaps all, were Czechoslovakian-built) were acquired by the East German NVA (Nationale Volksarmee Eng. National People’s Army), and eventually ended up in the Western-aligned Federal Republic of Germany following German reunification.

Year	BMP-1	Version
1984	878	Sp 2
1986	58	Of them 12 K2 version
1987	85	BMP-1P of them 6 command version K1 and three K2
1988	92	BMP-1P including 12 command K1, three K2, and three K3
Total	1113

Source – https://bmpvsu.ru/gdr.php#1

In December 1990, the decision was taken to maintain a number of these in service, and to this end, the BMP-1 would be ‘westernized’. This resulted in the BMP-1A1 Ost, a BMP-1 which forfeited the missiles, removed toxic asbestos from the vehicle, added German-standard headlights, rear lights, wing mirrors and Leitkreuz low-light identification markers, locked the 5th gear, and added an additional handbrake. Around 580 vehicles werebe converted from 1991 to 1993. The majority of these modernized vehicles, around 500, were sold to Greece in 1994, but around 80 modernized vehicles as well as hundreds of unmodernized ones remained in Germany’s stocks.

BMP-1A1 Osts at the conclusion of their upgrade in the Neubrandenburg repair facility where it was performed. Source: bmpsvu.ru

Sweden Tests the BMP-1

With Sweden eager to purchase infantry fighting vehicles at a cheap cost, and Germany providing just that in the form of hundreds of BMP-1 offered at a bargain price, interest soon arose. In early 1994, interested in the German BMPs, Sweden purchased five vehicles to run trials of the type and see if it would meet the requirements for what the Swedish Army was looking for.

Out of the five trial vehicles, one was used in ballistic trials to estimate the protection of the vehicle. The other four were given Swedish registration plates and named after famous commanders from the Second World War: 204992 ‘Patton’, 204994 ‘Monty’, 204997 ‘Rommel’, and 204998 ‘Guderian’.

“Monty”, one of the four BMP-1s which were used in trials in early 1994. The vehicle sports an unusual infrared spotlight. Source: www.sphf.se

The trials were run pretty quickly. The BMP-1 was, in many ways, not a vehicle which could beadapted to western standards, as the Germans themselves had taken notice and attempted to correct with the BMP-1A1 Ost. If Sweden was interested in purchasing large numbers of vehicles, which would necessarily include some which had not been modernized, a new upgrade programme would have to be devised for the vehicle to be compliant with Swedish army regulations.

Nonetheless, the BMP-1 had some interesting qualities. It was thought to be highly mobile, notably thanks to its amphibious capacities, and as such was considered to outfit the Norrland brigades, infantry brigades operating in northern Sweden specialized in sub-arctic warfare, for which mechanization was desired. Sweden also took interest in German surplus MT-LB multipurpose lightly armored auxiliary vehicles, which would, on the other hand, be given to units operating in southern Sweden.

“Rommel”, another one of the BMP-1s which were trialed by Sweden before adoption of the type. Source: www.sphf.se

In June 1994, convinced that the BMP-1 was a worthwhile addition to the Swedish arsenal, Sweden decided to formally acquire 350 BMP-1s to enter service. A further 83 were also purchased for spare parts. These 433 BMP-1s comprised 81 BMP-1A1 Osts, all the leftovers which had not been purchased by Greece save for one or two examples kept by Germany, 60 BMP-1s which had been through the BMP-1P upgrade during the Cold War (which included a new ATGM and smoke launchers), and 292 BMP-1s which had not gone through the BMP-1P upgrade.

The cost of these BMPs was reportedly extremely cheap, at 33,000 Deutschmarks (or roughly €17,000, or US$19,000) a piece, or one tenth of the price of purchasing a new Bv 206, of which the Swedish Army had thousands. The reason for such a cheap price was that Germany was eager to rid itself of these BMP-1s because of newly put in place military restrictions and to recoup the financial cost of the BMP-1A1 Ost refit program.

Two photos of a Pbv 501 during exercises of trials. The vehicle bears a Tank Gunnery Simulator System on the barrel and turret top, meant to simulate firing and hits during military exercises. Source: www.sphf.se

Turning BMPs Into Pbvs

As said, the BMP-1, as it was, would not satisfy Swedish standards and would have to go through a modernization process to be operated by the Swedish Army. This, however, would not be conducted in Sweden or by a Swedish company.

While 11 BMP-1s, seemingly of the modernized BMP-1A1 type, would be sent to Sweden to continue trials and experimentations, all others, which were to be modernized, would instead be sent to the Czech Republic. There, the Swedish Army contracted the VOP-026 repair workshop to conduct the modernization which the Swedish Army had decided to carry out.

The 83 IFVs bought for spare parts were also delivered to the Czech company, to cannibalize them if there was a need to replace damaged parts in vehicles which were to enter service. Contracting a Czech workshop was a logical decision. Czechoslovakia had been, by far, the second largest manufacturer of the BMP-1, locally designated as BVP-1. Around 18,000 had been manufactured, and as such, there was a large infrastructure and workforce which had good knowledge of the vehicle. At the same time, Czech companies offered their services at a very affordable cost. The deliveries of these modernized BMP-1s would start in 1996, at a rate of twelve vehicles a month. Once modernized and pressed into service with the Swedish Army, the vehicles would become known as the Pbv 501 (Pansarbandvagn 501).

The paint scheme given to Pbv 501s was either a unicolor green scheme or a bicolor green-and black scheme. The registration number would typically be inscribed on the rear right infantry door. Previously, when in German service, the vehicles had a typical Soviet khaki green paint scheme.

Bringing the Vehicle to Western Standards

The core of the Pbv 501 refit consisted of a large number of small upgrades which focused on bringing aspects of the Pbv 501’s ergonomics and safety to standards expected of Swedish Army vehicles.

A future Pbv 501 in VOP-026. The vehicle has received the side light but has yet to be fitted with the protective cap for the ventilation inlet and outlet. Source: https://bmpvsu.ru/

First would be the removal of asbestos. Some of this toxic element was found inside the BMP-1, notably brake and clutch linings, but it was found to be dangerous for humans after too much exposure, and was banned in most Western countries. Asbestos elements were purged from the vehicle and replaced by harmless materials. The Germans had done the same with their BMP-1A1 Ost refit.

On the outside, the vehicle received new external lighting which would conform to NATO standards. It notably received indicators to be able to pursue safer driving on roads. Two rectangular lights were also present on the side of the vehicle’s hull. Outlets were also added to start up the Pbv 501 from outside of the vehicle.

A rear view of Pbv 501 Nr501089 during exercises, with dismounts sticking out of the deck hatches. This photo provides a good view of the new rear lights and indicators which were present on the vehicle, as well as the black and green camouflage scheme used by the Swedish Army for the type. The crewmember appears to carry a Soviet communication helmet. Source: www.sphf.se

The exhaust pipe of the vehicle was improved, while a number of changes were made to the hull’s exterior so it could be easier to move around for soldiers. A number of patches of anti-slip coating were added. These were notably present around the hull sides and the center of the large hatches present on the deck.

The external change which allows for the easiest external identification of the Pbv 501, however, is likely a rectangular box present to the left of the turret. This is a protective cap over the outlet and inlet of the ventilation.

Internally, a number of changes were carried out to make the vehicle more comfortable for the crew. An autonomous heater was added to ease the life of crews and dismounts during the winter months. A fire detection and extinction system with possibility of automatic operation was installed inside to allow for the quick extinction of fires. The batteries were moved from their original place and isolated from the ventilated crew compartment inside the sealed box. Protective covers were added around the observation devices so the dismounts would not hurt themselves on the sharp corners, something the Germans had previously adopted on the BMP-1A1 Ost. The weapon holders were changed to be able to hold Swedish weapons, with the Ak 5 assault rifle also being able to be fired from the vehicle’s firing ports.

An internal view of a Pbv 501. The vehicle features a number of improvements in the dismount compartment, such as adding covers on the vision devices to prevent injuries. However the small size of the compartment could never have been fixed without a deep transformation of the vehicle. Source: www.sphf.se

Safety Features Limiting the Vehicle’s Armament

A few further modifications concerned the Pbv 501’s armament. Some of them significantly reduced the combat capability of the IFV, however it was a necessary evil needed to lower the operational risks.

First, the autoloading mechanism was removed outright, meaning the gunner present in the turret would have to manually load rounds into the breech. Additionally, the rail for the Malyutka ATGM and all control devices for the missile were removed as well. At last, a new safety mechanism was installed so that the 73 mm Grom and coaxial 7.62 mm PKT machine gun could not be fired when any of the vehicle’s hatches were open.

As such, when taking into account the combat capacities of the Pbv 501, it was likely one of the least capable BMP-1 models ever fielded. This was not an issue for the Swedish Army though. The Pbv 501 had not been purchased with the idea to field a large number of ex-Warsaw Pact infantry fighting vehicles as frontline combattants of the Swedish Army. Rather, the type was to form crews and mechanics around the operation of an infantry fighting vehicle, preparing for the entry of service of the infinitely more capable Strf 0940.

Stripbv 5011 Command Vehicles

Fifteen of the BMP-1s were not converted to be Pbv 501s, but rather Stripbv 5011 command vehicles. These went through the same upgrades as the Pbv 501, with the only changes being the addition of three Swedish radios: a single Ra 420 and two Ra 480, instead of the single Soviet R-123M which was retained in the Pbv 501. This heavier radio equipment took more space and meant the number of dismounts would be reduced from eight to six. Externally, the vehicle could be differentiated by the presence of three large radio antennas, in comparison to just one on the Pbv 501.

A Stripbv 5011. One can observe the three radio antennas on the vehicle. The open door and crewman inside also give an idea of the small size of these vehicles for the average Swedish soldier. Source: www.sphf.se

Deliveries and Disappointments

After deliveries of the Pbv 501s began in 1996, a number of plans the Swedish Army had to be modified because the vehicle had not lived up to all the expectations of the Army.

A Pbv 501 camouflaged with foliage during its short service in the Swedish Army. Source: www.sphf.se

First, the vehicle’s mobility, while generally being considered satisfactory in most conditions, actually struggled quite considerably in the snow, to the point where the vehicle was actually judged not sufficiently mobile to be fielded to the Norrland brigades. As such, the plans to outfit these with the Pbv 501 and brigades from the south with the MT-LB, now designated Pbv 401, were reversed, with the Pbv 501 instead being delivered to southern brigades, more precisely the 2nd, 4th, and 12th infantry brigades of the Swedish Army.

In service, the Pbv 501 proved to have a rather satisfying mobility in the south, but a significant number of issues, some of which could not be removed easily, were found with the vehicle. The first was with the ammunition, and was one which the vehicles shared in German service.

It was discovered that a certain amount of the nitrocellulose had been discharged into the air when firing the 73 mm Grom cannon. It was found potentially harmful to the health of the crew. Swedish trials seemingly found that this was an issue mostly with the PG-15V HEAT round, with the OG-15V high-explosive shell seeming safe in comparison, though the firing of all 73 mm shells appear to have been prohibited in peacetime. In the German Army, the issue of potential nitrocellulose poisoning was solved by restriction, meaning the crews were not allowed to fire the gun, at least not with potentially toxic rounds, in peacetime.

Sweden went even further though. No large stockpile of PG-15V was acquired, meaning even if the need was ever to arise, the Pbv 501 in Swedish service practically had no meansto deal with enemy armor. It appears a small amount of rounds was purchased for conversion into safe training rounds, but it is unclear if this ever took place. In addition to the problem of lack of anti-armor round, the Pbv 501 had removed the autoloader for the sake of safety. This made gunners overtasked, as they had to observe the outside of the vehicle to spot targets, aim and fire, and then reload the gun, a configuration one may cynically relate to be similar to pre-1940 French tanks. Furthermore, as found by the majority of Grom users, the gun was considered to be very inaccurate beyond practically very short range.

A Pbv 501 during maintenance, with the rear road wheel removed. The vehicle’s reliability was generally not too much of an issue, but if it was to break down, replacing the engine would be. Source: www.sphf.se

The vehicle was found to be rather reliable, however, if a mechanical issue was to arise, the removal and replacement of the engine block was found to be a long process, about 10 times longer than in the more modern Strf 9040 in fact. The radios were also a considerable disappointment; in comparison to Swedish models, as they were found to have a poor transmission quality and reduced range, and would require preheating for up to half an hour before functioning.

The limited internal space was found to be an issue for the majority of BMP-1 users. However, Swedish dismounts had probably the worst issues with the Pbv 501’s cramped interior, as Swedish males have an average height of 1.797 m, one of the tallest in the word. This is largely considered to already be in the range where sitting in the vehicle’s dismount compartment would be quite the uncomfortable experience, and finding servicemen who could comfortably operate inside a Pbv 501 was likely even harder for Swedish Army units in comparison to other BMP-1 operators.

Crewmembers and dismounts observe outside of a Pbv 501 during training exercises. Source: www.sphf.se

In and Out

All these issues with the Pbv, alongside the entry into service of the Strf 0940 and the reduction in size of European armies following the end of the Cold War and its tensions, played a large part in the vehicle being retired from active service. As such, it would appear that the Swedish Army took the decision to place the Pbv 501 into storage and stop operating vehicles of this type as early as 2000. This was before deliveries were even completed, which would continue into 2001. Some vehicles were placed directly into storage, without even being issued to Swedish Army units.

Pbv 501s in Swedish Army storage facilities in Hammar, southern Sweden. This photo is particularly useful to have a look at the disposition of anti-slip coated parts of the hull roof. Source: bmpvsu.ru

It appears that, in 2005, the decision was taken to phase the Pbv 501 from service and never issue them again. In practice, the vehicles remained in Swedish Army storage in the following years. In December of 2008, they found a buyer. This was actually the owner of the VOP-026 workshop which had carried the Pbv 501 modernization. The company, by that point known as EXCALIBUR, acquired the vast majority of the Pbv 501 fleet which Sweden had in its hands, with the vehicles being moved to its facilities in Czechia. The purchase price was 30 million Swedish Kronor (or roughly US$6 million) for the entire fleet.

It ought to be noted that apparently, the purchase was done under the cover of the Czech state, claiming that the vehicles would be used for the Czech Army, which still actively operates the BMP/BVP-1, and not purchased by a private company within Czechia. Jan Villaume, spokesperson of the Swedish Defence Materiel Administration (Swedish: Försvarets materielverk, abbreviated as FMV), the state company tasked with weapon exports, said that when approached by EXCALIBUR:

“We were [at first] informed by them too that they were interested, and we told them that we cannot sell to them, since they are a private company”

When the Czech Republic later expressed interest, Jan Villaume described the position of FMV as:

“They were exchanging parts of their own fleet and were going to use the rest for spare parts […] They seemed serious. We had no reason not to believe them.”

Pieter Wiezeman, spokesperson for the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), described Sweden’s side of the deal and the assumption that the vehicles would end up in Czech service after having first been approached by EXCALIBUR as naive:

“Realistically, I think that they should have known that these tanks probably were not meant for the Czech Republic. They should have investigated this more carefully, that would have been very easy to do.”

Iraq Unsheathes the EXCALIBUR Pbv 501s

The Czech company of EXCALIBUR Army continued storing of the Pbv 501s in its facilities at Přelouč, Czechia, waiting for a potential buyer. The vehicles were stored in particularly packed storage presumably in a climate-controlled environment, and seem to have been pretty regularly maintained, with some vehicles being rolled out quite regularly to show the Pbv 501 were still functional and ready for a buyer to take up the offer.

An EXCALIBUR Pbv 501 is driven around for a demonstration and photoshoot in 2012-2013. Other vehicles of the same type can be seen in the background. Source: bmpvsu.ru

Tightly-packed Pbv 501s in an EXCALIBUR warehouse, 2012-2013. Source: bmpvsu.ru

Pbv 501s being refurbished at EXCALIBUR Army facilities, 2015-2016. Source: bmpvsu.ru

A buyer was finally found in the shape of Iraq, which in 2015 acquired a number of the Pbv 501s stored by EXCALIBUR. Several estimates for the number of Pbv 501s delivered to Iraq have varied between 45 and 70 depending on the source. A convoy was spotted heading to Iraq with at least 52 Pbv 501s. It appears a higher number of vehicles could have been purchased too, perhaps as many as 250. Not all EXCALIBUR Army Pbv 501s were sold to Iraq, as the company has continued to showcase some of the vehicles since.

Pbv 501s on trucks in Iraq, circa late 2015. Source: bmpvsu.ru

A convoy of at least 52 Pbv 501s on trucks in Iraq.

This purchase was far from uncontroversial. The main issue was that the Swedish Defence Materiel Administration maintains a pretty strict list of countries which are embargoed from Swedish military sales for a number of reasons, notably regarding human rights or the possibility of the sold equipment to fall into the hands of terrorist groups. Iraq is one of the countries that feature on this list. But the purchase of the Pbv 501 by EXCALIBUR, and EXCALIBUR then selling the vehicles to the Iraqi government, circumvented the Swedish export regulations, which highly displeased some in Sweden. Former Swedish Army weapon systems ending in areas of the world where they did not want them, was exactly what the Swedish Defence Material Administration wanted to prevent.

An EXCALIBUR Pbv 501 is demonstrated in front of civilians in 2017, showing the sale to Iraq did not cover all vehicles and that the Pbv 501 is still on EXCALIBUR’s catalog. Source: bmpvsu.ru

Nonetheless, there was nothing in Sweden’s power to do about Pbv 501s being exported to Iraq. The vehicles ending up in EXCALIBUR’s hands was a shady process to begin with, with FMV and Sweden seemingly not entirely aware that they were selling their vehicles to a private company. Once the vehicles were in the hands and ownership of EXCALIBUR, Sweden had no means at its disposal to prevent the sale except complaints which had little to no hope of being received. Jan Villaume of FMV commented that: “We clearly wouldn’t have made the deal directly with Iraq, so it is now an indirect deal. It seems legal, but is not so good.” It is likely the deal somewhat soured Czech-Swedish relations at least in military matters, but it does not appear any measures or reforms were applied to Swedish export laws. Considering that the vehicles ended up in Iraq as a result of an under-handed process in which Sweden was misguided into selling the vehicles to what they believed to be a legitimate state actor, there may not be too much to even be done except enforcing already existing restrictions.

Into the Iraqi Army

The Pbv 501s were pressed into service into the 34th Mechanized Brigade of the 9th Armored Division of the Iraqi Army (الجيش العراقي). They joined a fleet of ex-Greek BMP-1A1 Ost which had been delivered to Iraq almost a decade prior.

A Pbv 501 in front of modified Humvees during the campaign for Mosul, November 2016. Source: bmpvsu.ru

The Pbv 501 were very heavily engaged in the Iraqi offensive to retake the city of Mosul from the so-called Islamic State (ISIS), and suffered considerable losses during this phase of the conflict. During the 2014 to 2017 period, out of 85 Iraqi BMP-1s spotted as destroyed, 35 were Pbv 501s, despite the vehicle most likely was introduced only in early 2016. It is possible that the Iraqis, while they may have appreciated the comfort upgrades brought by the modernization, were more displeased with the significant reductions in combat capacities it introduced, for example removing the autoloader and missile capacity.

A Pbv 501 destroyed during the battle for Mosul, 6th December 2016. Source: bmpvsu.ru

After the fall of Mosul, the Pbv 501s were engaged in further operations against ISIS, such as the reduction of the last ISIS stronghold in central Iraq, Hawija, in October 2017. The vehicles have notably been seen deployed near the Syrian border in November 2018, and remain in service of the Iraqi Army up to this day, and potentially for the foreseeable future.

Conclusion – The Convoluted Fate of German BMPs

The Pbv 501, alongside its MT-LB cousin, the Pbv 401, can appear as an anomaly in Swedish armored vehicles history, a Soviet vehicle operated by the army that has historically almost exclusively used western and indigenous designs.

When looking at the vehicle’s service life in Sweden, one may be tempted to say the purchase of BMP-1s from Germany was a total failure, with no proper use of the vehicle ever being found in Sweden. While that could be argued not to be far from the truth, at the same time, it ought to be remembered that Sweden was able to purchase ex-East German surplus BMP-1s at an incredibly cheap price, to the point where the investment that had to be placed to purchase 350 BMP-1s was in practice much less than what would be expected for such a large fleet of even outdated infantry fighting vehicles. Despite their very short service, therefore, it is not too far-fetched to say the Pbv 501s may, in the end, very well have been worth their price in the experience they gave to crews and mechanics who would later operate on the Strf 9040.

BMP-1/Pbv 501 as seen during the conversion process in a Czech factory

BMP-1A1 204997 ‘Rommel’ seen during trials in Sweden prior to the bulk purchase of former German BMP-1s, 1994

Standard Pbv 501 in Swedish army camouflage, late 1990/early 2000s

Pansarbandvagn 501 Specifications
Dimensions ( L x w x h)	6.735 x 2.94 x 1.881 m
Weight	~13.5 tonnes
Engine	UTD-20 6-cylinders 300 hp diesel engine
Suspension	Torsion bars
Forward gears	5 (likely just 4 on BMP-1A1 Ost-based Pbv 501s)
Fuel capacity	462 L (perhaps just 330 L on BMP-1A1 Ost based vehicles due to rear door fuel tanks not being used)
Maximum speed (road)	65 (likely 40 km/h on BMP-1A1 Ost based vehicles)
Maximum speed (water)	7-8 km/h
Crew	3 (commander, driver, gunner/loader)
Dismounts	8
Radios	1 R-123M (Pbv 501), 1 Ra 420 & 2 Ra 480 (Stripbv 5011)
Main gun	73 mm 2A28 “Grom” with autoloader removed
Secondary armament	Coaxial 7.62 mm PKT
Armor	Welded steel, 33 to 6 mm

Sources

“250 Swedish military vehicles sold to Iraq”, Radio Sweden, March 3 2015: https://sverigesradio.se/artikel/6106834
Soldat und Technik, 1994, no.12 p.675 “350 Schützenpanzer BMP-1”
SIPRI Arms Transfer Database
https://www.sphf.se/svenskt-pansar/fordon/pansarbandvagn/pbv-501-fordonsfamilj/
BMP-1 field disassembly, Tankograd: https://thesovietarmourblog.blogspot.com/2017/03/field-disassembly-bmp-1.html
Swedish servicemen testimonies: https://forum.soldf.com/topic/8717-pansarbandvagn-501-bmp-1-erfarenheter/#comments
Bmpsvu.ru: https://bmpvsu.ru/frg.php
Pbv-501 in the Swedish army: https://bmpvsu.ru/Pbv-501_2.php
Pbv-501 in the Iraqi army: https://bmpvsu.ru/Pbv-501.php
Solyankin, Pavlov, Pavlov, Zheltov. Otechestvennye boevye mashiny vol. 3
73-мм ГЛАДКОСТВОЛЬНОЕ ОРУДИЕ 2A28 Техническое описание и инструкция по эксплуатации (73-mm SMOOTHBORE WEAPON 2A28 Technical description and operating instructions)
БОЕВАЯ МАШИНА ПЕХОТЫ БМП-1 ТЕхничЕскоЕ ОПИсаниЕ И ИНСТРУКЦИЯ ПО ЭКСПЛУАТАЦИИ (COMBAT VEHICLE INFANTRY BMP-1 Technical Description AND THE OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS)

T-72 Ural-1 in Romanian Service

Post author By Pavel Alexe
Post date December 12, 2022
11 Comments on T-72 Ural-1 in Romanian Service

T-72 with fish gill sideskirts. Illustration by Pavel Alexe based on work by David Bocquelet.

Socialist Republic of Romania/Romania (1978-2005)
Main Battle Tank – 31 Purchased from USSR

Romania is relatively well-known for its own tank development projects, such as the TR-85-800 and TR-77-580, the latter entering production in 1978. Yet, just the previous year, after increasing pressure for rearmament for the Warsaw Pact members, the Socialist Republic of Romania purchased 31 T-72 Ural-1 tanks, partially to use as an ‘elite’ battle tank, but most importantly, to use for its own tank development program – the TR-125. The T-72 in Romanian service spent most of its time in absolute secrecy. They were first seen in the December 1989 revolution, where even other Romanian tankers thought it was foreign, and allegedly fired upon them. After the Revolution, they would see regular service alongside other tanks. They were retired prematurely in 2005 with great controversy. They have since disappeared, last time being seen in a degraded state in 2014. One T-72 remains in public view at the King Ferdinand National Military Museum in Bucharest.

One of the 5 T-72s at Pitesti during a parade, 2009.
Source: Resboiu

Background

In the mid-1970s, the Socialist Republic of Romania sought to upgrade and modernize its weapons arsenal massively, partly from purchasing vehicles from the USSR, partially from license production of both Eastern and Western products. A new main battle tank (MBT) was a priority. At the time, Romania only had T-34-85 and T-55 tanks in service, as well as its own tank development program, which would result in the TR-77-580, with production starting in 1978.

This rearmament plan was partly triggered by Commander-in-Chief of the Warsaw Pact and Marshal of the Soviet Union Ivan Yakubovsky, who claimed:

“Every military should have its own units equipped with the most modern types of armament and military technology, for the timely training of ranks for new equipment and gathering experience in using and mastering the equipment.”

To put Soviet Marshal I. Yakubovsky’s idea in practice, in April 1977, Romanian Minister of Defence, General-Colonel Ion Coman, at the alleged indication of Secretary General and leader Nicolae Ceaușescu, sent a letter to the Soviet Minister of Defence Marshal of the Soviet Union, D.F. Ustinov, about the purchase of a battalion of new T-72 tanks. The request was approved by Ustinov, and on 30 August, Ion Coman would send a letter to Ceaușescu stating that the order for 31 T-72 Ural-1 tanks was approved by the USSR.

General-Colonel Ion Coman, Minister of Defense between 1976 and 1980. He would be stripped of his military rank and sentenced to 20 years in jail at a trial in 1991 for his actions in the Revolution.
Source: MApN

Between 1978 and 1979, the Socialist Republic of Romania purchased 31 T-72 tanks from the USSR, in a contract worth 150 million Lei ($12.62 million dollars in 1979, around $52 million in 2022). The contract also included maintenance, ammunition, and troop training costs, and a ‘dummy’ tank for training.

The first T-72 tanks were delivered in 1978 to the 1st Tank Regiment “Vlad Țepeș” (Vlad the Impaler). Although they were produced in 1978, the tanks were not brand new, and had been used either in quality tests or exercises, as spent shell casings were found inside, spare parts and auxiliary tools were used, as well as there being a handful of kilometers on the board. In addition to the 31 functional tanks, Romania also acquired a simulation and training vehicle (no armor and static) as well as extra turrets (used for the TR-125 development).

T-72 Ural-1

In the late 1960s, Factory No.183, Uralvagonzavod (UVZ) would develop its own T-64 upgrade out of its own initiative. The main goals were to be cheaper, simpler, and more reliable than the T-64, allowing for easy mass-production, while still using the main advantages of the T-64. It used many turret and hull components of the T-64, as well as the D-81 125 mm gun. It was equipped with a V-45 780 hp engine, requiring a longer hull than that of the T-64. In January 1968, after its completion, it was named Object 172. In 1971, an improved version was made, using the lower hull and running gear from the Object 167, becoming the Object 172M.

It entered service in 1974 with great controversy. Many saw it as a waste of resources. For example, UVZ factory director I.F. Krutyakov put it as a “tactical mistake”. But the need of replacing the T-55 with a new MBT was growing, and the T-72 would end up being produced at 4 factories and becoming one of the most influential, mass-produced, and iconic MBTs of the Cold War, with countless variants, exports, and uses in combat.

The T-72 featured an 125 mm 2A26M gun with a 22 round carousel autoloading system (an extra 17 rounds were stored outside the carousel), needing just 3 crewmembers, commander, gunner, and driver. Secondary armament consisted of a 7.62 mm PKT coaxial machine gun and a 12.7 mm NSVT anti-aircraft machine gun. Armor (for the early variants) consisted of an upper frontal plate angled at 68º with 80+105+20 mm thick plates. The cast rounded turret was 410 mm thick. Later models would employ various types of ERA and add-on armor, as well as many adjustments to plate thickness and materials.

In December 1975, an upgraded variant of the T-72 would enter service as the T-72 Ural-1, developed at UVZ under leadership of V.N. Venediktov. It differed from the base T-72 models with improved armored protection, thermal sleeve on the gun barrel, and an infrared searchlight to the right of the main gun. In total, 5,250 such tanks would be produced between 1976 and 1980.

Romanian T-72 Ural-1 with its ‘gill’ armor still in place, early 2000s.
Source: Lt. Col. I.Trofimov

Operation – the 1st Tank Regiment “Vlad Țepeș”

The city of Târgoviște was arguably one of the best geographical area for a tank regiment, north of the Muntenian plains and south of the Carpathian mountains. The geographical-strategic advantage of the city had been well-known long before, having served as a capital for Wallachia (Valahia/Țara Românească) between 1396 and 1714. At the beginning of the 20th century, there were proposals to move the capital of Romania to Târgoviște, especially since there was only a 80 km distance between it and Bucharest. In 1872, a cannon factory was built there, which would later act as a maintenance center for artillery, known as Arsenalul Armatei (Eng: The Army Arsenal).

On 6 December 1919, after just 2 months of existence at Giurgiu, the first Romanian tank regiment was moved to the Târgoviște garnison. A year later, after a decree by King Ferdinand, the first Romanian Tank Regiment was created, Regimentul Care de Luptă (Eng: The Battle Tank Regiment) taking effect on 1 January 1921, consisting of 2 tank battalions. In the 1930s, the regiment increased to 3 battalions, receiving new Renault R-35 and Škoda R-2 tanks. In 1939, after a second tank regiment was formed, the Târgoviște regiment was renamed to Regimentul 1 Care de Luptă (Eng: Regiment 1 Battle Tanks). During the Second World War, the regiment, under the 1st Armored Division, fought against the Soviets in the liberation of Bessarabia (Basarabia) and Northern Bukovina (Bucovina), as well as the offensive into Odessa and Stalingrad. After the 23 August 1944 switch to the Allied side, the regiment would defend Transylvania and fight into Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Austria. In 1974, the regiment was renamed 1st Tank Regiment “Vlad Țepeș”.

Renault FT tanks of the Romanian Tank Regiment in Bucharest, 10 May 1925.
Source: Trupele Blindate din Armata Romana 1919-1947

The T-72 Ural-1 tanks were kept under utmost secrecy and incorporated into their own, independent tank battalion, which was isolated from the rest of the regiment, with exercises and training being done separately. Access to the training polygons was prohibited to members of other units, such as other tank, infantry, and artillery units from the base. Access to the tank facilities could only be done by the tank battalion members, who required a special permit. The unit’s members themselves were recruited after several checks to prove their loyalty to the party and trustworthiness.

The T-72 battalion was very well equipped for Romanian standards. The T-72 tanks were housed in a specially built ventilated warehouse, allowing to run the engines inside. Their unit included a specific “tancodrom”, a training area specially designed for various tank exercises and training, railway with loading platform directly in the barracks and tank storage area, firing range, water crossing and fording trench, ammunition depot, and training halls.

The tanks were kept secret until the Revolution of 1989. The tanks had not been shown to the general public or even other tankers since their introduction. Few tank officers ever got the chance to see them. Former commander of the 1st Tank Battalion “Vlad Țepeș” and blogger, Lieutenant-Colonel Ifrim Trofimov, has written a series of blog posts covering his experiences with the tank. He describes seeing the T-72 for the first time, after being a tanker since 1978 on both the T-34-85 and T-55:

“In 1984, when I was at a company commander training course, in Făgăraș, I saw it for the first time.

It was on a trailer, towed by a Tatra truck, covered by a tarpaulin. Even though we were tens of tank officers, many of us being company commanders, we were not allowed to see it, satisfying ourselves with its silhouette, and whatever we could see from under the tarpaulin: tracks, roadwheels and the gun barrel.”

Czechoslovakian TATRA 813 prime mover transporting a T-55AM, early 2000s.
Source: Lars Erik Salo via Pinterest

The T-72 ‘dummy’ rig for maintenance and technical training.
Source: Lt. Col. I.Trofimov

At the beginning of the 1980s, just a few years after the T-72 was purchased, Interarms attempted to purchase 2 such tanks from Romania. Interarms was a company based in London, claiming that they were willing to purchase armament, equipment and ammunition worth $22 million for a state in the Persian Gulf region. Romanian officials realized that the T-72 tanks were the actual target and that they would end up in the US. The contract did not go through.

T-72 at the Revolution – Petty Combat

During the Romanian Revolution, the military was called in to Bucharest by then Minister of Defence Vasile Milea to defend the Communist regime from the anti-regime protesters in the streets. The following regiments were called in:

Bucharest 1st Mechanized Regiment (equipped with TR-85-800s)
Bucharest 20th Tank Regiment
Caracal 68th Tank Regiment (equipped with T-55s)
Târgoviște 1st Tank Regiment (equipped with T-72s)

The Caracal 68th Tank Regiment was in the midst of switching from the T-55 to the TR-85-800 when the Revolution began. The Caracal regiment was called in to Bucharest on 19 December and were to equip wartime munitions. Choosing the T-55 tanks over the TR-85-800s, according to a platoon leader, 50 tanks (64 according to other veterans) drove the nearly 200 km with a speed of “no less than 40 km/h” and with “sparks coming from our tracks”.

Prior to entering Bucharest, Major Marchiș had told the tankers, “Warning. From this moment, there’s death! There’s shots, we don’t know from where, there are terrorists, we can always have surprises!”

The unit moved slowly towards the Palace Plaza, but was ordered to defend the Ghencea ammunition depot, as allegedly tanks captured by the “terrorists” were approaching it and wanted to blow it up. Naturally, the tankers from 68th Tank Brigade were not informed about what troops were already in, or about to enter Bucharest. Unfortunately, as the 68th Tank Regiment spent most of its time in Ghencea, on the outskirts of Bucharest, there are no period photographs of their T-55 tanks.

T-55 of the 20th Tank Regiment at the Palace Plaza, in front of the Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party, after the military had joined the fight against Ceausescu alongside the population.
Source: Mediafax

According to the historical register of the Târgoviște regiment, it was called in towards Bucharest on December 22 at 20:20, with a tank column ready for march in 10 minutes. Part of the tanks were to be under command of the 1st Army, and part in direct command of the MApN headquarters. On 23 December, the tanks were searching the areas in Bucharest where “terrorist activities” had been performed, at the request of the MApN. When, at the Northern Station (Gara de Nord) the column was attacked and dispersed, the tanks lost communication between each other. Towards the evening, the tanks were ordered towards Ghencea cemetery to “destroy the terrorist group from the cemetery”. Here, 3 tanks opened fire at a house next to the cemetery. An unnamed tank officer, which had previously been at the construction of the Casa Poporului (Ceaușescu’s large palace), had contacted one of the officers from the tank regiment as to why they were firing upon the house and advised them to stop. In an attempt to convince himself and the tankers that there was no danger, the man went to the house, where he discovered on the other side of the street, 3 TAB APCs with several soldiers in firing positions. The 3 TABs were firing upon the same house as the Târgoviște tankers had. He convinced them to stop, as they were at risk of hitting the tanks on the other side. He was hit in the chest by bullets shortly after and taken home by a civilian for care.

As virtually nobody had seen a T-72 in Romania before, including officers, these were thought at first to be the foreign or “terrorist” tanks. News had already spread about Soviet tanks on the eastern border and the threat of Soviet regular forces entering the country. Other false news, both from media and from civilians, about terrorists with unknown tanks appearing out of nowhere came to the tankers.

Two T-72 tanks from the Târgoviște Regiment in central Bucharest on Christmas Eve 1989. Note that the muzzle cover is still on.
Source: Cartula

Thus, the inevitable happened. On the 24 December 1989, in the first tank-on-tank combat of the Romanian Army since the Second World War, a single (or several, considering the amount of shots fired) T-55 from the 68th Tank Regiment opened fire on a T-72, the tank crew likely not recognizing the T-72 tank type. Thankfully, the T-72s were not equipped with live ammunition (of which there was very little, as it was the only unit to operate the 125 mm gun). Consequently, the T-72 crew attempted to drive away. The tank was struck in the engine bay, but the automatic fire extinguisher system prevented any disaster and the crew was able to exit the tank. The action was recalled by retired Deputy Sergeant Marin Oane from the 68th Caracal tank regiment in an interview:

“We fired upon that tank, it was said that it had been captured by the terrorists and came to blow up the (Ghencea) depot. They were actually our colleagues from Târgoviște.”

The tank combat story, according to the Târgoviște regiment historical register, was slightly different. On 24 December, a T-72 was struck by a TR-85-800 from the 1st Mechanized Regiment and 3 other T-72s acted to deter the attack. However, in the detailed memoirs of General Marin Oană (Lieutenant-Colonel of the 1st Mechanized Regiment) about the actions during those days, he does not mention of any contact with tanks from the 1st Tank Regiment.

At an unclear date, the T-72 tank was recovered and sent to Mizil for repairs. At the installations, Ifrim Trofimov was able to get a look at the damage done. In total, 5 (4 according to the unit commander at the time) shots had hit the T-72 (in unknown order):

Shell 1: Likely an HE-FRAG, exploded on impact with the antenna mount, melting the antenna and scraping off the paint.
Shell 2: Also an HE-FRAG, hit the right rear fender, damaging it and bursting an external fuel tank.
Shell 3: Also an HE-FRAG, hit the left side of the rear armor plate, denting it.
Shell 4: A BK-412 AP- HEAT round penetrated the tank, right at the welding between the rear plate and the left sidewall. The cumulative molten jet had penetrated the armor and entered the engine compartment.
Shell 5: Also a BK-412 AP-HEAT, penetrated through the exhaust and into the engine compartment.

One of the most iconic and cinematic pictures of the Romanian revolution. This T-72 has several civilians on its engine deck, sometime between 22 and 25 December 1989.
Source: Ullsten bild – Reuters

Post-1989 & Dissolution

After the Revolution, between 1992 and 1995, the unit was reorganized by the C.S.A.T. (Supreme Council of National Defense). Firstly, the T-72 tanks were no longer a secret, and would be incorporated into a complete tank battalion, with 30 T-72s and 10 T-55AM2s, renamed to the 1st Tank Battalion “Vlad Țepeș”. The new organization, which was applied to all tank units, was as follows: a tank platoon had 4 tanks, a tank company had 13 tanks (4 platoons of 3 tanks each plus a command tank), while a tank battalion had 40 tanks (3 companies of 13 tanks each and one battalion command tank). A single tank battalion was part of a mechanized regiment. The Târgoviște Regiment had an additional 108 tanks, 12 SU-100 SPGs, as well as various APCs, Malyutka-equipped BRDM-2s, and more.

As Romania was preparing to join NATO, the military underwent drastic changes. Many systems and equipment had been retired and subsequently scrapped or sold off. Romania’s military would change its military from a massed conscript force to a professional Western-style army. Concerning the tank forces, this meant that Romania would only have 5 tank battalions.

Signs that the T-72 would be phased out came as early as September 2001, when live-fire training of tankers would be done on TR-77-580, after training on the T-72, which it operated. Worthy to add is how different the 2 tanks were, as the TR-77-580 had a manually loaded 100 mm gun, as opposed to the autoloading 125 mm gun of the T-72.

Structural changes were implemented in June 2002, with the entire regiment being decreased in size and structural and bureaucratic functions removed. During the same period, the new TR-85M1 (upgraded TR-85-800) was supplied, and crews began training on it.

In 2004, the C.S.A.T. officially disbanded the 1st Târgoviște Battalion, ending an 86 year old tank tradition at the Târgoviște garrison. In January 2005, the tanks were transported away on flatbeds, 5 sent to Pitești and the remaining 25 sent to a storage facility in Voluntari, northern Bucharest. From there, they ended up in the yard of the UMB factory (Uzina Mecanica București), where the last picture of them was taken in 2014. They have since disappeared.

Memorial plaque with the names of the commanders of the 1st Tank Battalion “Vlad Tepeș”, 1957-2005.
Source: Lt. Col. Ifim Trofimov

Why the T-72 tanks were taken out of service remains a mystery, with no official answer ever given. Lt. Cl. I. Trofimov, who was assigned battalion commander of the troublesome T-72 battalion in 2001, blames it on the stupidity of higher-ups, an idea slung around far too often both in terms of Romanian military and industry. According to him, in 2005, when the tanks were sent away for storage, they still had 6 spare guns, 21 unused engines, and a host of spare parts. In contrast, according to other sources, the number of usable tanks decreased rapidly in the last few years of service. Allegedly, 28 were functional in 1995. By 1998, it dropped to 15, and in the 2000s, as low as 12. Why they were not repaired with the aforementioned abundance of spare parts remains a mystery, though funding and lack of skilled mechanics on the tank and specific systems could have been an answer.

By joining NATO in 2004, Romania broke its already dwindling relations with Russia, and any hopes of securing further spares, and most importantly, ammunition, were gone. This explains why there were no longer any firing trials with the T-72’s main gun. With little ammunition left, the remaining stocks were saved for potential use in combat, and ultimately, the tanks were no longer worthy of active use and training. Consequently, the tanks were withdrawn from service with the 1st Tank Battalion “Vlad Țepeș”. By the 2010s, 29 (remaining one was sent to the King Ferdinand Military Museum) T-72 tanks were listed up for sale by Romtehnica, the defense trading company of the Romanian Ministry of Defense.

The T-72 at the King Ferdinand National Military Museum in Bucharest. Note the larger TR-125 (P-125 to highlight that it is a prototype) to its right.
Source: Author’s collection

In spring 2022, with the Russian invasion of Ukraine, there were rumors on social media about Romania donating its remaining T-72 tanks to Ukraine. While Romania has shipped over $3 million worth of gear, ammunition, and provisions, heavy equipment, such as unoperational T-72s, have never been considered publicly, although some Romanian-produced TAB-71Ms have appeared in Kherson. If these tanks still exist and were not scrapped or sold by 2022 is up to question.

At least 11 T-72 tanks rotting at UMB Bucharest in 2014. They have since been removed.
Source: Victor Samartinean

114th Tank Battalion “Petru Cercel”

On 1 October 2009, the C.S.A.T. would reinstate armored forces in Târgoviște, with the creation of the 114th Tank Battalion “Petru Cercel”. However, the Battalion would be equipped with 54 aging T-55 and T-55AM/AM2 tanks, essentially replacing a T-72 battalion with a T-55 battalion over a period of 5 years. The Battalion is active to this day.

Detachment of 3 T-55s and a T-55AM during the ARGEDAVA 21 exercise, 2021.
Source: MApN Facebook

TR-125 (P-125)

After the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 and Ceaușescu’s heavy criticism of it, Romania’s military attempted to decrease its reliance on Soviet weapons imports, and turned towards Western countries for patents and technology. In terms of tanks, this meant the development of the TR-77-580. Based on the Soviet T-55, it saw improvements on paper, but, due to Romania’s lack of experience in the field, had several production and technical issues. Shortly after, in 1986, the TR-85-800 would begin production. Largely based on its predecessor, it saw major improvements, such as an 800 hp engine, reverse engineered from the German Leopard 1.

After Romania purchased the T-72 from the Soviets, it intended to locally produce it as well, just like the Yugoslavs had done with the M-84. A production patent was requested, but it was not granted by the Soviet government. Thus, Romania began reverse engineering the T-72, in what would become the TR-125. The T-72, and in turn the TR-125, were meant as a sort of “elite” battle tank, operating independently and in significantly fewer numbers to the T-55s, TR-77-580s, and TR-85-800s. However, due to the fall of the Communist regime and in turn Cold War, massive military budget cuts and privatization of many enterprises sentenced the TR-125 project to a slow demise. Recognizing that the TR-125 was clearly obsolete as a new MBT by the 90s, in the 2000s,the TR-2000 program was born. Several new tank models would be designed with the help of Krauss-Maffei and their components, while keeping the TR-125 as a basis. The project was too expensive and cancelled. Instead, the TR-85-800 were upgraded to the NATO-standard TR-85M1.

One of the 10 TR-125 prototypes, now exhibited at the King Ferdinand National Military Museum in Bucharest.
Source: Flickr

Type 64

During the many Sino-Romanian armament negotiations, the Chinese were able to learn that Romania had purchased 31 T-72 tanks from the USSR. This move fit the Chinese interests very well, as they had been searching for Soviet T-72s to be able to develop a new generation of MBTs. The Chinese offered fighter jets (likely of Soviet origin) or Harbin H-5 bombers and tank maintenance equipment in exchange of 1 T-72 Ural-1. Whatever the final offer was, the Romanians accepted and the tank was dismantled on Romanian soil, packed into containers and shipped to China. The tank was given the codename Type 64. The vehicle was reassembled without technical instructions in China and tested significantly. With information gathered from it, the Chinese were able to develop a new generation MBT, the Type 96 (Type 96). The vehicle is now somewhere in Inner Mongolia, China.

The Type 64 in more recent years. Note that the ‘gill’ armor and 12.7 mm NSVT machine gun have been removed.
Source: Voodoo_Six_one via WT forums

Conclusion

The T-72 was one of the most iconic MBTs of the Cold War and remains widely used to this day. Romania purchased 31 such tanks from the USSR in the late 1970s and kept them under extreme secrecy until the 1989 Revolution. Since then, the tanks operated normally all throughout the 1990s, until it was decided to remove them from service, arguably prematurely, and send them into storage. The Romanian T-72s were also crucial in the development of Romania’s own tank program, in the form of the TR-125, but also the sale of a single model to China, which renamed it Type 64 and triggered their Second Generation MBT development.

T-72 as seen during the Revolution. Illustration by David Bocquelet.

T-72 with fish gill sideskirts. Illustration by Pavel Alexe based on work by David Bocquelet.

T-72 Ural-1 in Romanian service specifications
Dimensions (L-W-H)	9.53 (incl.gun) – 3.59 – 2.23 m
Total Weight, Battle Ready	41.5 tonnes
Crew	3; commander, gunner, driver
Propulsion	780 hp diesel, V-12 config.
Speed	～60 km/h
Armament	125 mm 2A26M autoloader 7.62 mm PKT machine gun (coaxial) 12.7 mm NSVT machine gun (roof-mounted AA
Armor	UFP angled @ 68 deg. 80+105+20 (mm) Frontal turret: Ca. 410 mm Side turret: Ca. 210 mm Side hull: 80 mm Hull deck: 20 mm Hull belly: 20 mm
Total Purchased	31 purchased + 1 training dummy

Sources

Trupele Blindate din Armata Română 1919-1947 – Cornel I. Scafes, Horia V. Serbanescu, Ioan I. Scafes
Buletinul Arhivelor Militare Române Nr.90 2020 – Petre Opris
tROfi: Despre T 72-ul dâmboviţean (1) (trofi53.blogspot.com) – Cl. (r) Ifrim Trofimov
Organizarea unitatilor de tancuri in Armata Romana – Romania Military (rumaniamilitary.ro) – Cl. (r) Ifrim Trofimov
https://www.rumaniamilitary.ro/realizarea-tancului-tr-125#prettyPhoto Cl. (r) Ifrim Trofimov
rechizitoriu_revolutie_2d8cab0025.pdf (realitatea.net) – (july 2022) Cl. Magistrate Cătălin R. Pițu
“>T-72 “Ural-1” – December 15, 1975 (livejournal.com) – Andrei BT
Object 172M | Tank museum Patriot park Moscow
Amintiri din decembrie ’89: „Dacă n-am încălecat la morţi de m-au găsit loazele, mi-era nu ştiu cum să-i calc cu şenila“ | adevarul.ro – Alina Mitran
Cum a devenit Târgovişte punct nevralgic pe harta militară a Europei. Fabrica de tunuri a lui Cuza şi intervenţia imperativă a Rusiei ţariste | adevarul.ro – Corina Slamnoiu
Amintiri din ’89. Sute de militari au primit alarma „Radu cel Frumos” | Digi24

Cold War Mali Armor Cold War Soviet Vehicles in Foreign Service Malian Armor

T-54B in Malian Service

T-54B "Cne Sekou Traore"

Republic of Mali (Likely 1970s-Present)
Main Battle Tank – 12 Operated

The Republic of Mali is one of a myriad of African states which broke free from France at the turn of the 1950s to 1960s. Soon after independence, it became one of the most Soviet-aligned states in West Africa. This logically led to the Malian Army being largely equipped with Soviet hardware, particularly when it came to heavy equipment, for example, tracked vehicles. The heaviest of these tracked vehicles in Malian service are a small number of T-54Bs, delivered at an unknown date, but in any case, having been in Malian service for decades now. Despite that, they seemingly never saw any action despite Mali being a deeply troubled state for about a decade.

Malian T-54B “Konna” on a tank-transporting trailer in Bamako. Source: maliweb.net

The T-54, Workhorse of the Eastern Bloc

The T-54 is a tank that requires little introduction. Pushed into mass production and service in 1947, it proved a massively successful vehicle. While an evolutionary design from previous Soviet vehicles, its hull directly based on the T-44 and its 100 mm D-10T gun almost identical to the SU-100’s D-10S (though the V-55 12-cylinder 580 hp diesel engine was new), it was an extremely potent vehicle at the time. From its introduction in the late 1940s to arguably the late 1950s, the T-54’s combination of armament, protection and mobility in a mass-producible package can be said to have been unmatched in the West.

Variants and upgrades obviously followed suit. After the three early 1946/47, 1949, and 1951 models, a first major upgrade/new model was introduced in 1955. This was the T-54A, which included a vertical stabilizer for the 100 mm gun, a new radio, infrared driver’s periscope and headlights, new telescopic gun sights, and a new radio, among others.

In 1956, the T-54B was adopted into service, adding a number of new improvements, including a TPN-1-22-11 active infrared imaging sight, the L-2 “Luna” infrared spotlight which could be quite common on late 1950s Soviet AFVs, an infrared commander’s searchlight, and 2-plane stabilization (from 1957 onward). This night fighting equipment was fairly exceptional for the time, more comprehensive than on tanks such as the M48A2/A3, Centurion Mark 3, or the myriad of older tanks, notably M47 Pattons, which formed the backbone of NATO’s tank force in Western Europe.

A Soviet T-54B. The type was a late 1950s/1960s workhorse of the Soviet Army. Source: krasnayazvezda.com

Not only were newly manufactured T-54Bs entering service, but the majority of previously in-service Soviet T-54s would be refitted to T-54B standard in the late 1950s, making the type a very common tank. By the late 1960s and especially the 1970s, however, though the T-54B definitely had not become a worthless combattant, the introduction of more modern tanks in the Soviet arsenal, the T-62, T-64, and soon enough, the T-72, as well as more advanced models of the T-55, meant the T-54 was no longer in its prime.

The vehicle was, however, an excellent hand-me-down to Soviet allies, being available in large numbers, and its armor and armament still being very significant in areas of the world where the most common armored fighting vehicles were armored cars. At the same time, its fairly light weight of 36 tonnes, about as light as a modern medium tank/main battle tank was, lighter than pretty much all NATO tanks of the class except the French AMX-30B, also made it a good option for countries with infrastructure not developed for exceedingly heavy vehicles.

The Unclear Export to Mali

Cold War Mali was almost exclusively a customer of Soviet armored fighting vehicles, being an openly Socialist dictatorship from 1960 to 1968 under Modibo Keïta, and a less clearly ideological, but still pro-Soviet military regime under General Moussa Traoré from 1968 to 1991.

There are three known major packages of armored fighting vehicles delivered to Mali. The date when T-54s were delivered, and as such, to which of these packages they belonged to, is not known for certain. The first package, including BTR-40s and T-34-85s, was delivered in 1960-1961, just after the country’s independence, and likely far too early for the USSR to deliver the still fairly new T-54B to an African state that had just become independent. This leaves two other known packages, the one delivered around 1975, which is known to have included BTR-152s, BRDM-2s, and PT-76s, and the one delivered around 1981, which included BTR-60PBs and perhaps some further T-34-85s, though these are sometimes quoted as delivered from another African state.

The 1975 package seems perhaps the most fitting, as it included the widest variety of vehicles and was overall larger in size, but the T-54 having been delivered in the early 1980s cannot be excluded for certain. It is also possible the vehicles were delivered at another date, outside of these major known deliveries. The vehicles are, after all, not the only Soviet AFVs where the exact date of delivery is not known, that also being the case of a number of ZSU-23-4 Shilkas and some extremely elusive BMP-1s the Sahelian country received.

As for the number of vehicles delivered, an attempt at establishing the inventory of the Malian Army by French military historian and terrorism expert Laurent Touchard from 2012 placed the number of T-54s in Malian service at twelve. It should be noted that this inventory was of vehicles still in existence, not of vehicles delivered. The same inventory established Mali had 18 PT-76 operational, while 20 are known to have been delivered, and therefore it cannot be confirmed Mali only ever received 12 T-54s.

However, as the vehicles appear to have seen less intense service than the PT-76s, it is more likely none were ever worn out to the point of being out of service in comparison to the amphibious light tanks, so 12 remains the most probable number of vehicles delivered. It should also be noted that the same report stated Malian T-54s were not in the best state. Their radios were reported to either be used and damaged, or sometimes entirely unoperational.

Operational Service

In December 1985, Mali waged a short 5-day war against its neighbor, Burkina Faso, over the Agacher Strip, but this was a small-scale conflict and it is not known if the T-54s were used as part of it. If so, they would likely have been a force to reckon with, as Burkina Faso did not (and still does not) field tanks. At the time, Burkina Faso’s most heavily armed armored vehicles were AML-90s and the recently delivered EE-9 Cascavels. The Agacher Strip War, however, likely did not see any armor engagements.

As of 2022, footage of Malian T-54Bs is known to have originated from three different places: Sikasso, capital of the eponymous Sikasso province; the capital, Bamako; and the city of Kati, 15 km from Bamako.

Sikasso is the main storage facility of Malian tracked armor. The vehicles are stored in the military Camp Tieba, which also hosts a military school/training facility. The vehicles appear to generally be stored in roofed, but open-air hangars, with no flooring on the sand or dirt ground, protecting the vehicles from some, but not all of the elements. Most Malian tanks appear to be in Sikasso almost all the time. This includes the T-54Bs, but also the PT-76s, and Mali’s most obscure tanks, a fleet of Chinese-made Type 62s that have seemingly never been seen outside of Sikasso’s Camp Tieba.

T-54Bs and PT-76s stored in Camp Tieba, Sikasso. Note that recent photos of T-54s seem to show them with no heavy machine gun mount at all, while photos of the vehicles in the 2010-2012 era show them with an unused heavy machine gun support. Source: Oryx Blog

The T-54s have otherwise been seen a number of times in Bamako, the Malian capital, during occasional military parades, often not moving under their own power but on a tank-transporting truck.

The location where T-54Bs have typically been seen moving under their own power is the city of Kati, 15 km from Bamako, where some Malian T-54s were seen on exercise in 2011.

Camouflage, Commemorative Name, and Their Evolution

The earliest known footage of Malian T-54s, starting in 2010, shows the vehicle in a uniform green camouflage, similar to the Soviet green color which the vehicles would have sported in Soviet service. This camouflage seems to have persisted until at least 2012-2013, and potentially several years later.

A number of commemorative names were seen on T-54Bs spotted in this period. They have been seen referring to a number of things, including settlements and cities, folktales, historical leaders or figures of Mali, and more recently, in reference to Malian Army servicemen killed in the conflict in the North.

On September 22nd 2010, a parade to celebrate the 50th Anniversary of Malian Independence was carried out in Bamako. It included three T-54Bs on tank transporters. One was named “Soni Ali Ber”, after a 15th-century leader of the Songhai Empire, a large medieval African state of which the capital was Gao, located in present-day Mali. A BTR-60PB has also been seen sporting the same name.

Another was named “Bakari Dian”, a half-man half-beast creature from a folktale from the Ségou region of Southern Mali, east of Bamako. The last is known from photographs which only allow part of the name to be identified, reading “Monzon Diarra”, a warrior king which ruled the Bambara Empire, an empire centered on the Bambara peoples (the most common group of ethnicities in Mali), at the turn of the 18th to the 19th century.

Two Malian T-54Bs on trailers during the 50th Anniversary of Malian Independence Parade in Bamako. Source: Esoteric Armour

A photo of T-54B “Bakari Dian”. Note the empty machine gun mount. Source: Esoteric Armour

A very similar shot of T-54B “Soni Ali Ber”. Source: Esoteric Armour

The name of this third T-54B present in the 2010 parade is not entirely readable, but “Monzon Diarra” can be identified. Also note the white-painted rims on the vehicle’s road wheels, a classic parade scheme for Eastern Bloc-aligned militaries. Source: Oryx Blog

On January 20th 2011, Malian T-54Bs took part in a military exercise and demonstration, including live firing, in the town of Kati, 15 km from Bamako. Two vehicles were spotted, “Soni Ali Ber” and “Bakari Dian”, still sporting their names seen in the previous parade.

T-54B “Bakari Dian” during the January 20th 2011 exercise/demonstration. Source: Esoteric Armour

T-54B “Soni Ali Ber” during the January 20th 2011 exercise/demonstration. Source: Esoteric Armour

Two additional named T-54Bs were seen at later dates. One was named “Konna”, after a city in central Mali (which would be about the edge of terrorist group Ansar Dine’s advance into central Mali in January 2013, before the Franco-African intervention pushed it back), and another was named “Cne Sekou Traore”. This later name is particularly interesting, as it refers to a much more recent individual than usual. Captain Sekou Traore commanded a company, the 713ème Compagnie Nomade (ENG: 713rd Nomad Company) in the Battle of Aguel’hoc, one of the first major battles during which the Malian Army faced off against the Tuareg MNLA and islamist Ansar Dine and Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) during the 2012 Tuareg Insurgency. After their victory in the battle, AQIM insurgents executed 97 Malian prisoners. The Malian state, in the following months, attempted to make the men that fought in Aguel’hoc into heroes and highlight the barbaric executions in an effort to try and bolster the country against the growing insurgency, which would see Mali lose control of the northern half of the country.

T-54B “Cne Sekou Traore” seen on a tank-carrying trailer, likely in 2012 or 2013. Note, this time, the red painted road wheel hub caps. Source: Oryx Blog

In recent years (one photograph being dated from 2018), Malian T-54s have been seen sporting a new camouflage, which has also been observed on PT-76s and Type 62s. This camouflage is a multicolor scheme including dark green, brown, beige, and black. Large swathes of each color are painted on the tanks, and smaller irregular lines are then present inside the larger swathes.

A Malian tank crew poses in front of a T-54B in the new camouflage scheme in Kati, May 4th 2018. Source: voaafrique.com

Vehicles painted in this new camouflage scheme have been seen both in Kati as well as in Sikasso. The most recent known view of a Malian T-54 actually seems to be from a location from where no views of the vehicles had emerged previously, a military camp in Sevare, one of the largest cities in Central Mali. Within a number of photos documenting training of Malian crewmen on a 122 mm D-30 howitzer by the European Training Mission in Mali, one sports a T-54 in the background.

In this photo published in March 2021 by the European Training Mission in Mali, part of an article on training Malian crews using a 122 mm D-30 howitzers, a T-54B can be seen in the background. The vehicle appears to not have been moved for a while, and its fenders are noticeably damaged. Source: European Training Mission in Mali digital journal, March 2021 issue

Absence of the T-54s in the Current Malian Conflict and their Role in the Malian Army

Mali’s T-54s have not seen use in the current Malian conflict, despite war in the country having been raging for over a decade at this point. Though the vehicles not being used may be surprising at first, there are actually very reasonable motives for it.

The Malian conflict, outside of the ill-fated attempt by terrorist groups to progress into Central and Southern Mali that triggered foreign intervention in January 2013, has mostly remained confined to Northern Mali, an environment marked by the Sahara Desert, with settlements separated by sometimes hundreds of kilometers of desert with very poor roads. For an army to make proper use of tanks there, it would need a very strong logistical organization and wide availability of spare parts, something the Malian Army does not have. Vehicles such as Mine-Resistant Ambush Protected vehicles (MRAPs), and perhaps even more widely technicals (often based not only on the Toyota Land Cruiser, but also the Korean Kia KM450 truck in Mali) make much more sense.

In the modern Malian environment, the technical has proved a much more useful asset than the tank. This example is a Kia KM450 fitted with a 14.5 mm ZPU-1 heavy machine gun. It is here seen on guard duty in Gao on January 13th 2017, during the visit of French President François Hollande to French troops stationed in the city. Source:d Stéphane de Sakutin, AFP.

The vehicles have been retained in some service capacity though, and this can also appear reasonable at first. If Mali came to heads with one of its neighbors in a peer-to-peer military conflict, rather than counter-insurgency warfare, its T-54s would actually not be any worse than their opponents in most cases. Three of Mali’s neighbors, Burkina Faso, Niger, and Senegal, do not field any tanks, though all three have 90 mm-armed armored cars. Three others are in the same state as Mali, with a variant of T-54/T-55 as their heaviest tank. There is of course one exception to this, Algeria, one of the African continent’s military powerhouses. However, the border between Algeria and Mali is located in the middle of the Sahara, an impractical environment for tanks, and the impoverished Mali could never realistically hope to afford equipment to rival the Algerian military.

However, in practice, it is unlikely Mali’s T-54s would account to much in a conventional war. The vehicles themselves may not be worse than their opposition, but it appears they have only seen minimal service and maintenance, meaning they would both be susceptible to breakdowns, and be crewed by inexperienced personnel, who would both struggle to repair the vehicles and to operate them properly. When adding these factors to the small number of vehicles in service, even against other unstable and divided countries, such as Burkina Faso, Malian T-54s likely would only have a minimal impact. The widespread availability of anti-tank armament across West Africa capable of knocking out T-54s further diminishes the tank’s usefulness. This is true more so in the last few decades due to the breakdown of order in Libya and previously massive deliveries of ex-Soviet surplus largely expanding the number of anti-armor weapons being traded around in the region.

T-54B “Konna” likely in Bamako. Ever since 1991, there appears to have been little use for Mali’s T-54s outside of occasional parades in Bamako and exercises in Kati. Source: Oryx Blog

Conclusion – Mali’s Agonizing Giants

To a foreign observer, seeing T-54s in Sub-Saharan Africa may seem like an unnoticeable, common occurrence, and to an extent it is. However, T-54Bs likely brought a significant asset to their army back when the country suffered from less internal instability. Fielding actual tanks is not a given in the Sahel, with three of Mali’s neighbors being content with armored cars, including Burkina Faso, with whom Mali fought a very short war in 1985. In case a conflict like the Agacher Strip War was to escalate, the T-54s, despite their small number, would likely have been a significant help for the Touré regime of Mali to emerge victorious over its adversaries.

However, unfortunately for Mali, since the end of the Touré regime, the conflicts the Malian Army faces are no longer border wars with its neighbors, but rather much bloodier and, as of 2022, seemingly endless internal conflict. Whereas T-54s may have been useful assets fighting in the somewhat better infrastructure of the Niger river basin and the border areas of Southern Mali in general, their superior armament and armor is worthless when the conflict Mali faces takes places in the Sahara, where using tracked main battle tanks without a logistical train Mali cannot afford would be a fool’s errand. As such, Malian T-54s have largely remained in the southern half of the country, far from action, and likely progressively seen less and less as useful assets for the government. In the last few years, it appears the vehicles are appearing less and less in parades, with few photos of them rather showing them in the background, sitting still and likely unused, or in storage. While still notionally in service of the Malian Army, the country’s T-54Bs are likely dying a slow death under poor maintenance as there is, simply put, no use for them anymore.

T-54B “Cne Sekou Traore”

T-54B in the late 2010s camouflage scheme. Both illustrations by Godzilla based on work by David Bocquelet

Sources

European Training Mission in Mali digital journal, March 2021 issue

Esoteric Armour – Mali T-54B

Oryx Blog: Sons of Bamako – Malian Armed Forces Fighting Vehicles

Oryx Blog: Commemorative Names On Malian Army Vehicles And Artillery

Armée malienne : le difficile inventaire, Jeune Afrique

AFP, Voa Afrique: Un maire du Nord tué dans “une malheureuse circonstance” par l’armée, Février 04 2019

SIPRI Arms Transfer Database

Cold War Romanian Armor Cold War Soviet Vehicles in Foreign Service Modern Romanian Armor

4K51 Rubezh in Romanian Service

Post author By Pavel Alexe
Post date June 6, 2022
No Comments on 4K51 Rubezh in Romanian Service

Post-1989 4K51 system, painted in the 90s with a 4 tone camo-pattern, until 2010.

Socialist Republic of Romania/Romania (1987-2024)
Anti-Ship Coastal Defense Missile System – 4 Purchased

While Romania’s topography consists mainly of great plains crossed by the Carpathian mountain chain, Romania has an opening to the Black Sea stretching over 245 km. For centuries, this opening has proved crucial for the local population, offering a great trading route with nearby territories, and a connection with the Danube river. When the Romanian Communist Party started its wide scale industrialisation program in the 1960s, the opening to the Black Sea would become even more important, and would require serious defending, both via the sea, but also directly from land. The last piece of equipment purchased by the Socialist Republic of Romania for this role was the 4K51 Rubezh, a Soviet mobile coastal anti-ship missile system, that could provide cheap and fast defense against naval threats.

4K51 Rubezh launching a missile at Capu Midia in 2010.
Source: MApN via Ștefan Ciocan

Background, the P-15 Termit in Romania

The Romanian re-armament plan of the 1960s consisted of purchasing a variety of modern Soviet equipment, most notably rockets and missiles. Such weapons became exponentially more important, offering immense destruction power, with short travel times and long ranges, with relative safety for the firing vehicle. One of these systems was the P-15 anti-ship missile, initially intended for ship-to-ship use.

In March of 1961, a delegation of the Romanian military was sent to Moscow to discuss the terms of the Warsaw treaty, as well as rearmament of the Romanian military. During this period, the acquisition of 6 Project 205 (Osa-class missile boats) for the Romanian Navy was decided, to be received in the period of 1962 and 1965. These ships were equipped with 4x P-15 Termit missiles each, and formed a brand new naval battalion. The new unit would be named the 133rd Vedete (Missile boat) battalion. A total of 5 Osa-class boats were imported in 1964, with several produced locally later on, the boats receiving the designation of NPR, Navă Purtătoare de Rachete (rocket carrying ship). The P-15 would be transported on land by SR-114 Bucegi trucks. The Romanian Frigate Mărășești also uses 4 P-15 launchers, with 2 launch tubes each.

The 4K51 Rubezh missile system was purchased in 1988 brand-new from the USSR, as Romania completely lacked a designated mobile coastal defense missile system, with only conventional artillery systems and the SA-N-2 Volhov stationary missile systems, which the Romanian military claims could also be used against naval targets. Just 4 systems were purchased and were delivered by March 1988. Interesting to note is that the systems have not undergone any sort of modification, either in the Soviet Union or Romania, and thus, all writing and information inside the vehicles are in Russian, in Cyrillic writing.

SR-114 Bucegi trucks of the Naval Forces transporting P-15 Termit missiles.
Colorized by Smaragd123

4K51 missile system

In the 1960s, the Soviets were analyzing their existing coastal-defense systems, the 4K87 Sopka and the 4K44B Redut. The Sopka was already obsolete, while the Redut, despite its supersonic cruise speed and long range, had a long fire preparation time and was simply too large. Additionally, it was not allowed for export. Thus, development started at the Raduga design bureau in 1970, with the Moscow Design Bureau of Mechanical Engineering designing the missile launcher, named 3S51 with KT-161 launch containers. The Design Bureau of the Minsk Automotive plant would undertake the necessary modifications for the chassis, based on their own 8×8 MAZ-543M truck. The 23-tonne truck used a 38.8 liter V-12 D12A-525A diesel, delivering 525 hp with 38,8 l and consuming 80 liters / 100 km (2.94 miles / gallon). It had an automatic gearbox and reached a top speed of circa 60 km/h. Fuel reserve was sufficient for 630 km.

The system consisted of 4 main components. The truck itself had the driver’s cab at the front, which was small in size in order to be able to fit the engine to the right. Behind was the telescopic radar. Behind it was the main control and firing cabin, which housed the crew of 6 men and all the FCS equipment and turbocharged power supply. Lastly, the two launching pods were mounted at the back, with a full 360° range. The launching of the missiles could only be done in a 110° range adjacent to the chassis, and the lowest elevation being 20°. Two lids, on both sides of the launcher tube, were opened automatically prior to launching.

The ZC51 Harpoon telescopic radar ensured the independence of the system, not requiring an external radar, though an extra long-range radar could be used (something Romania did not order for the Rubezh). The Harpoon radar had a range of 100 km and scanned the surface of the water level over this area. In tandem with the mobile 3S51 launchers, they ensured that the system was ready to fire in just 5 minutes, and could drive off even faster.

Testing of the vehicle began in late 1974, at the 141st independent Artillery Division, for which the 1267th Independent Coastal Missile Division was formed at the Black Sea. Firing tests were held at Cape Fiolent, in Crimea. A total of 23 launches were built between 1975 and 1977. It was adopted in service with the Soviet Navy on the 22nd October, 1978, after Decree from the Council of the Ministers of the USSR No. 853-875.

In the 1980s, a modernization was made, using an enlarged MAZ-543M truck. The launching system was named 3P51M.

4K51 Rubezh prior to a missile launch at MILREX 2007 at Capu Midia, with its Harpoon radar extended and tube 2 ready for launch. Note the 4-tone camouflage pattern.
Source: Bogdan Dinu

P-15M (P-21 & P-22)

The missile used on the 4K51 was the P-15M, which was an excessively modernized variant of the P-15 missile. It featured a trapezoidal wing, which was folded during transport in the vehicle, and would lock open after launch. Its empenagge consisted of a small vertical stabilizer and two horizontal stabilizers. Its propellant consisted of a two-stage rocket engine. The first engine was used at the initial launch and to reach the designated cruise altitude. Once it ran out of fuel, the cruise engine would start operating. The fuel used was the usual solid-state TG-02, in tandem with AK-20K nitric acid based oxidiser. The cruise engine was tasked with reaching a speed of 320 m/s (1,150 km/h) and maintaining it until it reached the target. During navigation, the rocket used an APR-25 autopilot, radio-based altimeter, navigational system and homing radar. The total range was thus increased to 80 km, at maximum cruise altitude of 250 m, but between 50 and 100 m above sea-level was recommended. It had a mass of 2,573 kg, out of which 513 kg was the conventional warhead. It was 6.565 m long, a wingspan of 2.4 m and a diameter of 0.76 meters. Each launcher had 2 different target acquisition systems, one with an active radar, while the other had a thermal infrared system. These missiles were sold internationally as the P-21 and P-22 respectively. The 2 target acquisition types offered crews flexibility in regards to what missile to launch, taking into consideration the target. Alternatively, firing both missiles ensured a higher chance of a hit, especially if the enemy vessel tried to jam the systems.

Loading of a NPR with P-15M rockets. Note the folded wings.
Source: Flacăra

Organization

On 30th of November 1987, as per the General Staff, the 460th Coastal Rocket Battery was formed, part of the garrison at Mangalia. The unit received all 4 systems by March 1988. First firing exercises were held on 18th of May, 1989, at the Tuzla firing range. On 30th of July, 1990, the unit changed name into the 508th Coastal Rocket battalion, and in 2005 it was integrated into the 190th Naval Rocket battalion. Since 2017, the 585th C.B.R.N. defense company is integrated into the 508th Coastal Rocket battalion.

4K51 Rubezh in 2017, with new NATO 3-tone camouflage. Note the retracted Typhoon radar, in driving position.
Source: Unknown

Camouflage

After the original reception, these vehicles were painted in the standard dark green color and given a Romanian roundel on the door. During the 1990s, the vehicles were repainted in a 3-tone camouflage with light blue, light green and yellow over the base dark green coat, resulting in a flamboyant 4-tone camo. This was usual practice, as there was no camouflage norm set by the General Staff, so units would paint their vehicles with whatever paint was available, resulting in some interesting colors and patterns. Between 2007 and 2010, the vehicles were repainted again, this time in a 3-tone camo, with light green, yellow and brown. In 2017, with higher budgets to individual units and reorganization, the vehicles were painted to the standard NATO 3-tone camouflage with khaki, black, and brown.

Rubezh system with its radar extended and 3-tone yellow, brown, and light green camouflage.
Source: Ro Navy

Raytheon Replacement – NSM

There are rumors that, in the mid-2000s, the 4K51 and subsequent P-21 and P-22 missiles were to be taken out of service. Apparently, after a firing test, the missile destroyed the naval target on first hit, thus extending the service life of the missiles in Romania, both on the 4K51 but also for the ships that used it. Financial issues are the more probable reason behind this extension, but the Romanian Army loves its myths. After being in service with the Romanian Navy for over 30 years, the 4K51 system is showing its age. Even early in its life, the system was questioned for its relatively short range (not necessarily an issue for Romania’s moderately small coast) but, more importantly, interception of the missile and jamming of the guiding systems. Additionally, Romania’s stock of these missiles is getting smaller, to the point that firings of real rockets are not undertaken anymore.

Since 2017, the Ministry of Defense (MApN) has shown interest in replacing the 4K51 systems with the NSM, Naval Strike Missile, developed by Kongsberg Norway. A contract was signed in May 2021, worth €286 million. This consists of 4 mobile launcher systems, 1 mobile command & control center, 1 loading and transport vehicle, as well as all testing, logistical, maintenance and training aspects. The systems will be delivered in 2024.

The NSM is a light anti-ship missile, with a range of 185 km and weighing only 125 kg. It uses an infrared sensor to identify and guide itself to the target, which makes it hard to detect by radar and is classified as a ‘stealth’ missile that can be used all-weather.

Poland acquired the system in 2008, and the US adopted the system in 2018.

Missile	P-15M	NSM
Dimensions (length – wingspan)	6.565 – 2.4 m	3.96 – 1.36 m
Mass	2.573 kg	407 kg
Warhead mass	513 kg (conventional)	125 kg
Cruising Speed	320 m/s (1152 km/h) (716 mph)	240 – 326 m/s (864 – 1173 km/h)
Cruising altitude (above sea level)	Recc. 50 – 100 m (max 250 m)	Sea-skimming (< 50 m)
Range	80 km (50 miles)	185 km (115 miles)
Target acquisition and homing system	Active radar (P-21) and thermal infrared (P-22)	Infrared imager, passive sensors, GPS

Romanian 4K51 (left) and Polish NSM (right) based on a Jelcz truck at Sea Shield 21. The difference in size between the two missile launchers is very clear.
Source: MApN Facebook

Post-1989 4K51 system, painted in the 90s with a 4 tone camo-pattern, until 2010.

4K51 Rubezh in Romanian service with the 3-tone camo pattern from 2007 to 2017.

In 2017, all 4K51 systems were painted in the standard NATO 3-tone camouflage. All illustrations by Pavel Alexe.

4K51 Rubezh missile system in Romanian service specifications
Dimensions (L-W-H)	14.2 x 2.97 x 4 meters
Total Weight, Battle Ready	40+ tonnes
Crew	6
Propulsion	D12A-525A diesel V-12 525 hp 38.8 l with 80 l/100 km consumption.
Speed	60 km/h
Armament	2x P-15M (P-21 & P-22) missiles, launched from the 3S51 with KT-161 launch containers.
Armor	N/A
Total Purchasedn	4 launchers

Sources

Forțele Navale Române (navy.ro)
TiV No.5 2021
Rachetele armatei române şi criza vectorilor nucleari sovietici trimişi în Cuba (1960-1963) | Contributors – Petre Opriș
Rachete balistice sovietice în România (1961-1998) | Contributors – Petre Opriș
https://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-defense-23117440-armele-romaniei-care-sunt-rachetele-sistemele-artilerie-din-arsenalul-militarilor-romani.htm – Victor Cozmei
OFICIAL Armata cumpără sisteme mobile cu rachete anti-navă NSM din SUA. Când vor fi livrate primele sisteme care vor păzi coasta Mării Negre – HotNews.ro – Victor Cozmei
Dotări noi la Forţele Navale Române. Rachetiştii se inst (cugetliber.ro) – Andreea Perhaiță
NSM – Naval Strike Missile – Missile Systems – KONGSBERG – Kongsberg Defence & Aerospace

Cold War Algerian Armor Cold War Soviet Vehicles in Foreign Service Modern Algerian Armor

T-62 in Algerian Service and T-62-Berezhok Conversion

Post author By Marisa Belhote
Post date May 7, 2022
1 Comment on T-62 in Algerian Service and T-62-Berezhok Conversion

Algerian T-62. Illustration by David Bocquelet.

People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria (1977-Present)
Main Battle Tank – 330 Delivered

Algeria achieved independence from France in 1962 after an 8-year bloody struggle. Since then, the country has built up one of the best equipped militaries on the African continent. The main supplier of military hardware, and particularly armored vehicles, for this regional military power was traditionally the Soviet Union. A supporter of Algerian independence against France, the Soviet Union largely equipped the Algerian Army from the 1960s onward, and some of the hardware delivered in this era has remained in service and seemingly well-appreciated even up to this day, notably the T-55. This does not, however, appear to be the case of its direct successor in Soviet service, the T-62. Delivered to Algeria around 1977, the type has had a troublesome history in the North African country, largely outshadowed by the tanks that came before and after it. However, a recent rebuilding program may give a second life to the T-62 in the largest country of North Africa.

This article has been supported by car wreckers Hamilton, a company in New Zealand specializing in vehicle recycling and disposal. If you are in New Zealand and need to go to the wreckers, check them out!

An ANP T-62 on parade, late 1970s.Source: https://www.forcesdz.com/

An Army Running On Soviet Gear: The Rise of the ANP’s Armored Forces

France’s colonization of the territory of modern day Algeria began in 1830, and despite local opposition, would consolidate later in the century. Generally considered one of the jewels of France’s colonial empire, Algeria was no simple colony. It was the territory where, more than elsewhere, efforts were undertaken to settle Europeans and integrate the territory within the regular French political structures in place. Algeria was, in effect, a part of France.

This did little to prevent the rise of pro-independence feelings in Algeria, which already manifested in a fairly strong popular insurrection that was bloodily repressed by the French Army and Navy in 1945. In October 1954, the FLN (French: Front de Libération Nationale, English: National Liberation Front) was founded as a pro-independence group, which would quickly grow its armed forces, the ALN (French: Armée de Libération Nationale, English: National Liberation Army). This led to the beginning of the Algerian War, a conflict in which the FLN/ALN struggled with the French Army and its local auxiliaries for the independence of Algeria. After years of a long, bloody war, a ceasefire was finally brokered with the Evian Accords of March 1962. In July, Algeria would effectively gain its independence.

France’s colonial war had been widely unpopular, even among Western countries, and while France continued to widely acquire American gear during the Algerian War, there were few countries that openly supported France in the Algerian War. In contrast, the FLN had ample foreign support, both from fellow formerly colonized Arab states and other powers, perhaps most significantly the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc. These equipped the ALN with weapons through a variety of channels during their guerilla struggle against the French.

Once in control of the country, the FLN implemented policies generally somewhat comparable with the USSR. The movement-turned-party was by no means Communist, even outlawing and repressing some communist organizations, but supported a form of Arab Socialism that generally clashed with the West. As such, it is not surprising to see that the Algerian Army, the ANP (French: Armée Nationale Populaire, English: National Popular Army), would receive open large-scale deliveries of arms from the Soviet Union and allied states. In terms of tanks, initially, there were a moderate number (seemingly around 110) of T-34-85s received shortly after independence, around 1963. These were quickly followed by a much larger complement of around 290 T-54 and T-55 tanks between 1964 and 1967. A further 50 T-55s may have arrived in the early 1980s. Significant numbers of armored personnel carriers, at first BTR-40s and BTR-152s, were delivered in the 1960s, and later BTR-60PBs, BTR-50s, and eventually BMP-1s in the 1970s as well.

These deliveries would allow the ANP to morph into a fairly large and well-equipped mechanized and armored force, although the exact composition of its units has typically been fairly poorly documented. This force had one clear potential opponent in the form of the neighboring Kingdom of Morocco. Morocco was more closely aligned with the West and had many historical disputes with Algeria, the most significant of these being over Western Sahara. Spain had held this territory, claimed by Morocco, in 1975, and Algeria openly supported and armed a group advocating for the independence of the region, known as the Polisario Front. This led to a divided Western Sahara stuck in a frozen conflict, a situation that persists to this day.

A recent picture of an Algerian T-55AMV. The T-55 has become a workhorse of the ANP, still widely used alongside mechanized infantry, and considerably modernized. As late as 2018, the vehicles were modified in order to be able to use Ukrainian 100 mm Stugna gun-launched anti-tank guided missiles.Source: topwar.ru

The deployment of Algeria’s Army is informed by its historical rivalry with Morocco. Algeria is divided between six military regions:

1st Military Region: located around the capital, Algiers, and does not include any territories on Algeria’s border.
2nd Military Region: located to the north-west, and concentrated around Oran, comprises the most densely populated area, bordering Morocco, and has traditionally seen the heaviest deployment of the ANP, particularly its most well-equipped units.
3rd Military Region: comprises the western part of the Algerian Sahara, including some significant settlements, such as Béchar, a long border with Morocco, and the border Algeria has with the Polisario Front. This strategic region has also seen significant deployments of the ANP.
4th Military Region: comprises the east of the Algerian Sahara, notably the totality of the border with Libya.
5th Military Region: located around Constantine in the north-east, it comprises Algeria’s border with Tunisia.
6th Military Region: the largest of the regions, it comprises most of the Algerian Sahara, including borders with Sahel/Sub-Saharan states, such as Mali and Niger.

A map of Algeria’s military regions.Source: Wikimedia Commons

These last three regions (4, 5, and 6), typically located further away from direct, potential peer-to-peer opponents of the Algerian Army, have typically seen less deployment of modern, heavy assets.

The T-62

The T-62 tank formally entered service in the Soviet Army in 1961, and new vehicles would be produced until 1975. The vehicle had largely been based on the previous T-55 in terms of armor layout and powerplant. The engine used in the T-62, the V-55V, was identical to the T-55’s V-55 in all but the alternator. It was a 12-cylinder, 4-stroke, liquid-cooled diesel engine, producing 580 hp at the nominal rate of 2,000 rpm.

Where the T-62 differed from the T-55 was in terms of turret and armament. The T-62 had adopted a new cast turret, of a similar overall shape but flatter and wider, and most significantly, a new 115 mm U-5TS smoothbore gun. In comparison to the 100 mm D-10T of the T-55, the U-5TS would prove superior both from a purely larger caliber and shell, and a smoothbore rather than rifled barrel, which was typically a better alternative to use for high-pressure shells, particularly in terms of wear. This made the T-62 better able to deal with new NATO tanks introduced in the 1960s which, for some of them, became better protected than their 1950s predecessors, for example the American M60 and the British Chieftain. There were also minor changes to the hull, which was slightly longer, as was the combat compartment. However, the vehicle gained only one tonne of weight from the T-55, reaching 37 tonnes. The improved T-55A was actually even heavier than the T-62, at 37.5 tonnes.

In many other regards, the T-62 was similar to the previous T-55. In terms of armor protection, the vehicle had the same protection on the hull. The main front glacis was 100 mm thick, angled at 60°, while the lower front plate was 100 mm angled at 55°. The hull sides were mostly flat and 80 mm thick, with a 45 mm armored collar for the turret, and a similar thickness of 45 mm at the vehicle’s rear hull. The cast turret had more differences with the old T-55, being flatter and wider overall. The armor was 242 mm at its thickest, on the very sides of the gun (32 mm thicker than on a T-54/T-55). Most of the frontal arc was 214 mm in comparison to 200 mm on the T-55, though the shapes of the T-62 turret meant that impacts would happen at higher angles. The armor progressively declined over the sides, being thicker towards the front, and going down to about 65 mm towards the rear sides. The roof itself was about 30 mm thick, though the front part, more susceptible to being hit, was 60 mm thick at a high angling of 80° just on top of the gun. Overall, the protection of the T-62 was equal to the T-55s over the hull but quite superior around the turret. At the time Algeria acquired the vehicle, this would have been a very good performance, especially as the Moroccan Army still had many tanks, such as 90 mm-armed M48s, which would have struggled to perforate that type of armor.

The suspension was very similar, though there were some differences. The T-62 notably did away with the front roadwheel having more space between it and the second, whereas all others were equally spaced. All road wheels were evenly spaced on the T-62. The type of suspension used is a classic torsion bar suspension. Crew composition was also similar to the T-54/T-55, with a driver, a loader, a commander, and a gunner. Operation would also be similar, though the heavier 115 mm shell could be said to be more tiring for the loader, despite efforts made to make it as light as possible.

The T-62 in Algeria

As a major customer of Soviet hardware, it is not surprising that Algeria ended up acquiring T-62s. Some 330 vehicles were purchased from the Soviet Union in the 1970s. The most commonly accepted date for the start of deliveries seems to be 1977, although 1975 is sometimes claimed. Deliveries ended in 1979. This fairly large delivery ran pretty swiftly, and seems to have almost doubled the Algerian fleet of main battle tanks. Algerian T-62s seem to have sometimes mounted a pintle DShK 12.7mm heavy machine gun.

Algerian T-62s on the parade during their first decades of service.Source: pinterest

A color photo of Algerian T-62s, with their DShK raised at a vertical angle. The registration number of the first vehicle can be observed on the front left mudguard, while the vehicle’s number is present on the side of the turret.Source: https://www.forcesdz.com/

In service, the T-62 did not at all replace the T-54/T-55, which remained in service. They instead supplemented them. They were seen taking part in a number of parades in the late 1970s. However, it appears that the tanks failed to make a major impression. Algerian tankers seem to have preferred the older T-54/T-55 over the newer vehicle. It seems there were complaints of the vehicle performing poorly mobility-wise due to an increase in weight, though it being noticeable seems fairly odd, as the vehicle only gained a tonne while keeping the same horsepower output. It is also likely the heavier 115 mm shells, harder to handle for loaders, proved less popular for the crews. In Europe, the increase of firepower could generally be said to be well worth it, but one could see how this was lost on an Algerian Army of which the main rival, Morocco, in large part fielded older or lightly armored Western tanks, such as the M48 or SK-105.

Perhaps more significantly though, it would not be long before Algeria acquired new Soviet tanks, which seem to have been a huge jump forward from the T-62. In 1979, Algeria received its first T-72s, a 100 of seemingly the M variant. In comparison to the recently delivered T-62, the new Soviet tank was superior in almost all categories. It was more mobile, better armored, and better armed with a higher-caliber and autoloaded 125 mm gun. When comparing these two tanks, which, while several years apart in development in the USSR, were delivered closely together in Algeria, it is not hard to see why the T-62 failed to make an impression.

The T-62 Throughout the Years: Myths, Modernizations, and Exports

The unpopularity of the T-62 in Algeria appears to have been such that, in past years, there was a persistent rumor that the vast majority of the fleet was exchanged with the Soviet Union for modernized T-55s of the T-55M and T-55AMV type in the early 1980s. These claims have largely been disproven by confirmation that T-62s were still spotted in service in some numbers occasionally up to this day, and instead the appearance of T-55M and T-55AMV in the ANP from the 1980s onward is due to Algeria modernizing its fleet of T-55s with Soviet support. It remains true, however, that the older T-54/T-55 appear to have received much more attention than their theoretical successor.

Further deliveries of T-72s, and later, in the 2000s, T-90SA have relieved the T-55s from serving with armored regiments as combat tanks, to being used for fire-support with mechanized infantry units. However, the vast majority have seemingly been upgraded to the AMV standard, including ERA, a laser rangefinder, a much better fire control system, and the ability to fire gun-launched anti-tank missiles. In comparison, while upgrades were available for the T-62 from the USSR, such as the T-62M and T-62MV, it appears there were never great efforts to apply them in Algeria.

It also appears that small numbers of T-62s were passed onto the Polisario Front at an unclear date. The group’s equipment is overwhelmingly sourced from Algeria. While its most common tank has always been the T-54/T-55, some T-62s have also been spotted in its service. Inside Algeria, the T-62 has generally been fairly elusive. A regiment of up to around 100 tanks operated in Ain Bessam, 98 km south-east of Algiers, deep into the 1st military region and away from the Moroccan border, in the 1990s, before they relocated in 1997.

It is likely there was some limited involvement of T-62s during the Algerian Civil War, which raged on from 1991 to 2002. This was the consequence of a military coup launched to prevent what seemed like the imminent victory of an Islamist Coalition, the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS), against the ruling FLN party in the presidential elections. However, the war largely had a counter-insurgency nature, as opposed to a peer-to-peer war, and as such mostly involved lighter vehicles, with the most commonly seen tanks rather being the T-55s Algeria typically relies upon for fire support.

A review of Polisario Front tanks. While most appear to be T-54 or T-55s, the tank in the forefront is a T-62, which was almost certainly supplied by Algeria.Source: https://raids.fr/

One place where Algerian T-62s have typically often been seen is in Algeria’s BCL (French: Base Centrale Logistique, English: Central Logistical Base). Founded in 1975 in Béni Mered (in the Blida Province, within the 1st Military Region, and a few dozen kilometers from Algiers), the BCL was placed under the control of the Ministry of National Defense in 1982. It comprises a number of workshops and has become the largest armored fighting vehicles maintenance, upgrade, and, to an extent, even production plant in Algeria, employing around 2,500 people in 2021. The BCL was extensively modernized between 1987 and 1994 and reached its current status as a publicly-owned, industrial, and commercial company in 2009. T-62s have been fairly consistently spotted within the facilities of the BCL, and it appears that over time, a number of upgrades from the T-55AMV ‘trickled down’ onto some T-62s. A limited number of vehicles were spotted fitted with a similar laser rangefinder, likely the same KTD-2 as on the T-55AMV. T-62s have also been seen with a second infrared spotlight. However, it does not appear Algerian T-62s have ever been seen with the Kontakt 1 reactive armor used by the T-55AMV, nor is it likely that their fire control system has been upgraded to the same extent.

Three Algerian T-62s seen in recent years. They feature a number of new components, such as IR searchlights and what appear to be laser rangefinders, but still are far from featuring the amount of modernizations of Algerian T-55s. As suggested by the red oxide primer that two of them sport, these three vehicles may also just have been experimental conversions done at the BCL, and it appears unlikely most T-62s went through such a range of upgrades.Source: Dr.WatsonFDZ on twitter

Conversion to Fire Support Vehicles

By the 2000s, the T-62 appeared to many as the least active and most out-of-date part of Algerian’s tank fleet. They had failed to go on the same updates as the T-55s, while also vastly outdated in comparison to the T-72s and T-90s of Algeria.

Around the same time, Algeria was still a massive customer of Russian gear. Among notable orders, Algeria was an early adopter of the BMP-2M ‘Berezhok’ modernization for the BMP-2, ordering kits to modernize its vehicles as early as 2006. This adoption would be fairly widespread, extending further than the around 300 BMP-2s scheduled for modernization. A number of BMP-1s seemingly received the same turret, which makes them exceedingly hard to differentiate from BMP-2s.

In the 2010s, Algeria noticeably purchased the BMPT ‘Terminator’ T-72-based fire-support vehicle. Algeria bought a fairly high number (120, though up to 300 is sometimes claimed) of these vehicles, which were delivered in 2020.

An Algerian BMP upgraded with the Berezhok turret seen on the move during exercises.Source: military.africa

An Algerian BMPT Terminator. As of 2022, Algeria is the largest operator of this vehicle in the world. Source: KAD-GHANI on twitter

These purchases (among other purchases of Russian gear by Algeria, such as more T-90s), gave Algeria experience with both the Berezhok turret and the concept of a fire-support vehicle based on the hull of a tank. It appears these concepts were combined with Algeria’s remaining T-62s. It is not necessarily hard to see why this thought process was followed. The 115 mm gun of the T-62 had over the decades been unable to make itself as much of a ubiquitous system as the 100 mm of the T-54/55 or the 125 mm of the T-72 and T-90s. It appears that, as a result, the cost for ammunition and continued ammunition production was much less affordable than for more widely used calibers. Considering the T-62s also appeared to have been poorly valued by the Algerian Army, they were a prime candidate to find another use.

Therefore, at some point in the very late 2010s or in 2020, the decision was made to modernize the T-62 fleet by replacing their turrets with Berezhok turrets. The Algerian Army is traditionally somewhat opaque, which is why the start of the process is hard to place. It appears the conversion was first reported in late August 2021. By that point, however, known pictures of the conversion process were already being shared alongside the news, suggesting the project started months prior at least. The conversion has sometimes been called BMPT-62, though it is unclear if this is in any way official.

There were some changes that needed to be carried out in order to adapt the T-62 hull to mount a Berezhok turret. The most important most likely concerned the turret ring. The T-62 had a 2,245 mm turret ring (largely widened in comparison to the previous T-55 in order to accommodate the 115 mm gun), while the Berezhok is adapted to the 1,740 mm turret ring of the BMP-2. The solution to this problem was to create an armored ‘collar’, of which the reduced diameter would match the one needed. As a consequence though, it would likely make the turret sit higher as well. It is unclear if more changes are meant to be applied to the hull of the T-62s, mainly as, as of April 2022, no pictures of a completed converted vehicle have yet been seen. In order to fulfill a heavy fire-support role similar to a BMPT, some changes, such as the use of Explosive Reactive Armor (with Algeria already using Kontakt 5 fairly widely) would aid in the vehicle being able to adequately perform this role. Some pictures suggest new side skirts are being added to the vehicle, but this is a far cry from a large-scale updating of the tank’s protection, particularly against RPGs, which are likely to be the main threat to an urban fire-support vehicle.

T-62s undergoing the upgrade at the BCL. The forwardmost vehicle can be seen fitted with the armored ‘collar’ for the Berezhok turret. Other red oxide parts, such as what appears to be a basic spaced armor plate around the engine and extended mudguards, indicate new parts being fitted.Source: Dr.WatsonFDZ on twitter

Another picture of the vehicles being worked on in the BCL, showing both the new armored collar as well the extended mudguards and sideskirts.Source: Dr.WatsonFDZ on twitter

The Vehicles Are Unveiled

On July 2nd 2022, footage of completed Berezhok turret conversions appeared for the first time. A number of vehicles, painted in a sand tan color, were spotted in footage shared on the internet. The vehicles were taking part in rehearsals for a military parade to be held on July 5th, celebrating the 60 years of Algeria’s independence, presumably in Algiers. Many other armored or unarmored vehicles of the Algerian military were also seen in the same rehearsal, among which were: T-90SA main battle tanks, 2S3, BM-30 Smerch, TOS-1A Buratino, BM-21 Grad and PLZ-45 artillery systems, ZSU-23-4 Shilka, BUK-M2, Pantsir and S-300PMU2 anti-air systems, BMPT Terminators, and SM4 self-propelled mortars.

The vehicle’s appearance matches what could have been expected from earlier views of the conversion during its assembly. The front of the T-62 hull has evidently received few changes, with the same configuration of the lights and no form of up-armoring whatsoever, be it ERA, appliqué, or other. The same can be said for the Berezhok turret, and confirms that the vehicle’s protection indeed remains very limited.

A completed vehicle during rehearsals for the July 5th 2022 60th anniversary of Algerian independence parade. Source: KAD-GHANI on twitter.com : https://twitter.com/kad_ghani

A rear view of a vehicle from the same group, showing the engine deck. Source: KAD-GHANI on twitter.com : https://twitter.com/kad_ghani

A column of T-62 Berezhok seen from a road bridge. Source: KAD-GHANI on twitter.com : https://twitter.com/kad_ghani

The Berezhok Turret

The turret and components used for this modernization were ordered by Algeria from Kurganmashzavod KPB Tula of Russia.

A dismounted Berezhok turret used as a training aid in Algeria, 2018. Source: Algerian television via Dr.WatsonFDZ on twitter

The Berezhok turret is directly based on the BMP-2’s, of which it is intended as a modernization. However, it appears that new turrets are clearly being manufactured, which is not in itself a surprise, as BMP-2s turrets were still being made and used after the fall of the USSR. The Berezhok turret was first unveiled in 2006, and was a private venture. Russian orders to modernize the BMP-2 fleet would indeed take about a decade to come.

The turret can largely be considered a modern IFV turret. As a result of their BMP-2 lineage, it appears they have kept the same modest armor protection, with 20 mm angled at 36° to 43° to the front and front-sides, and 10 mm angled at 20° to 28º to the rear. The ergonomics are likely broadly similar as well. In comparison to previous Soviet vehicles, and particularly the BMP-1, the BMP-2’s turret is generally considered to have been somewhat more comfortable. The commander notably has a rotating cupola, though it is meagerly fitted with original periscopes.

The Berezhok turret highly improved the sensor suite of the BMP-2 turret. It received a much larger rotating commander’s sight, as well as thermal sights, seemingly for both gunner and commander, a significant improvement from previous models.

The main armament of the turret is still the 30 mm 2A42 autocannon.

The 30 mm 2A42 autocannon, which became the USSR’s most common 30 mm autocannon in the 1980s.Source: topwar.ru

The 2A42 fires the Soviet 30×165 mm cartridge. It uses a dual-feed system. There is a digital display showing the number of shells still available in the turret, as well as a switch allowing for a quick change in the type of ammunition fired. The weapon features a 2,416 mm barrel, fitted with a double-baffle muzzle brake. The autocannon has two dedicated fire rates, a slow one at 200 rpm and a quicker one at 550 rpm. During sustained fire, the rate of fire can reach higher values. The turret allows for a very high elevation of +60° which, coupled with a dedicated high-elevation sight, makes the 2A42 a more dangerous threat to helicopters than what would be expected from a ground vehicle.

A number of 30×165 mm shells are available for the 2A42. The total number of shells carried inside the BMD-2 turret is 300. If enough work was put into it, it is likely the larger hull of the BMP could allow for higher ammunition stowage.

For use against light fortifications, infantry, soft-skinned vehicles, and other unarmored targets, the 2A42 can fire the 3UOF8 High-Explosive Incendiary (HE-I) shells. This shell has an explosive filling of 49 grams of A-IX-2, the standard Soviet explosive autocannon shell formula since 1943. The overall mass of the projectile is 390 g, and that of the whole cartridge 842 g. In high-explosive belts, it is complemented by the 3UOR6. This shell forsakes most of the explosive charge, with only 11.5 g remaining, to mount a very large tracer. Fired at the same muzzle velocity of 980 m/s, it is used for fire correction purposes, though over large distances, the trajectory of the two shells may begin to differ. With a fuse lasting 9 to 14 seconds, the explosive shells will generally detonate after about 4 km if they have not met a target, though autocannons are typically used effectively at much closer ranges. The rate of tracer to high-explosive rounds in a 30 mm belt tends to be 1:4.

For armor-piercing duties, two types of 30 mm shells exist. The older 3UBR6 is a fairly classic armor-piercing shell with a core of hardened structural steel. This steel core weighs 375 g, with the entire projectile weighing just 25 g more, at 400 g, and the entire shell weighs 856 g. It features a tracer that burns for 3.5 seconds after being fired, and has a muzzle velocity of 970 m/s. Its penetration values against Rolled Homogeneous Armor (RHA) at an angle of 60° are 29 mm at 700 m, 18 mm at 1,000 m, and 14 mm at 1,500 m. These are fairly mediocre performances, able to defeat little more than light armored vehicles in the vast majority of cases.

A more modern armor-piercing shell exists in the form of the 3UBR8, an Armor Piercing Discarding Sabot (APDS) shell with a tracer. It features a lighter 222 g piercing core of tungsten alloy. The projectile as a whole is 304 g, and the cartridge 765 g. Fired at a muzzle velocity of 1,120 m/s, this shell seems to penetrate, against similar RHA armor and at the same angle of 60°, 35 mm at 1,000 m, and 25 mm at 1,500 m. It offers much more suitable performance than the older 3UBR6 against modern infantry fighting vehicles. The 2A42 is supplemented by a coaxial 7.62×54 mmR PKTM machine gun. It appears it is fed by a single 2,000 round belt, as on the standard BMP-2.

This 2A42 autocannon is fitted with much more comprehensive fire control systems inside the Berezhok. The turret features a ballistic computer and automatic target tracker, making acquisition and precise targeting much easier. It also provides thermal sights and a two-axis stabilizer. The gunner’s sight, in particular, comprises 4 different channels: a classic optical mode, a thermal mode, a laser rangefinding mode, and a fourth integrated missile-control mode for the turret’s Kornet ATGMs. Independent commander and gunner’s sights allow the turret to be used in ‘hunter-killer’ operations.

In addition to the PKTM, another anti-infantry secondary weapon is fitted in the form of the AGS-30M automatic grenade launcher. It is mounted to the rear of the turret, firing over the roof, and is centrally mounted. This automatic grenade launcher is fed by 29-round belts, with the projectiles used being 30×29 mm grenades. A number of projectiles are available. The oldest is the VOG-17A and improved VOG-17M, introduced with the 1970s AGS-17, a simple high-explosive fragmentation grenade. The later VOG-30 and, since 2013, VOG-30D retain the same general role of HE-FRAG, but with enhanced explosive filling and fragmentation potential. The last type of HE projectile available, IO-30, is fitted with a fuze to detonate it after 1,700 m, which is generally considered to be the maximum effective range of the AGS-30. The grenade launcher is automatic, firing rounds at arounds 400 rounds/minute with a muzzle velocity of about 185 m/s. It is a remarkably light system at only 16 kg unloaded, adding some non-negligible firepower to the vehicle at very little additional weight. Additionally, it can also be loaded with VUS-30 smoke projectiles, allowing it to be used to deploy smoke screens.

An ammunition belt of 30 mm VOG-17A high-explosive fragmentation grenades.Source: armedconflicts.com

A rear view of a BMP-2M Berezhok at a Russian military exhibition. This angle is particularly good for viewing the AGS-30M as well as Kornet missile tubes.Source: topwar.ru

The last weapon system of the Berezhok is its complement of 9M113 Kornet missiles. The turret features four launchers, two on each side of the turret. It ought to be noted that while this is not the case on the BMP-2M, considering the large space available for ammunition storage inside the T-62 hull, storage of a reload of these missiles may perhaps be a possibility.

The Kornet uses semi-automatic beam-riding guidance, meaning the missile is aimed using a laser beam aimed at the target from the firing vehicle. The previous 9M113 Konkurs offered by Tula was, in comparison, a wire-guided semi-automatic command to line of sight (S.A.C.L.O.S.) system, which required the firing vehicle to constantly maintain the target in line-of-sight in order to retain guidance. This more modern guidance system, in addition to the higher maximum speed of Kornet ATGMs (going from 250 to 300 m/s, depending on the missile, whereas Konkurs reaches a maximum of around 200 m/s), makes the Kornet a safer and more accurate missile in general.

In addition to its superior guidance system and speed in comparison to older Soviet ATGMs, the Kornet is also of a larger caliber than most being 152 mm, whereas the older Konkurs is 135 mm. This, in addition to more modern shaped charge designs and components, make it much more effective against armored fighting vehicles. The original 9M133-1 missile was rated for around 1,100 to 1,200 mm Rolled Homogenous Armor (RHA) penetration on average, and the use of a tandem HEAT warhead reduced the protection offered by ERA against it. Since then, the newer 9M133-2 (or ‘Kornet-EM’) has a stated armor penetration of 1,100 to 1,300 mm and a longer effective range of up to 8,000 m. The large caliber of the Kornet also allowed for other uses than merely anti-tank. This manifested with the 9M133F-1 missile, which instead of an armor-piercing shaped charge, contains a thermobaric warhead, equivalent to 10 kg of TNT and providing significant incendiary effects. Both the original 9M133-1 and thermobaric 9M133-F missiles have a maximum flight speed of 250 m/s and an effective range of 100 to 5,500 m.

A schematic of the 9M113-1 armor-piercing missile. The first explosive charge is denoted by the ‘1’ and the second by the ‘5’. The fenders (6) and control systems (7) are at the rear, while the fuel (4), rudders (3), and drive with intlets (3) are towards the front-middle.Source: https://en.missilery.info/

The warhead of a 9M133F-1 thermobaric Kornet, which was found by Ukrainian troops in Donbas in 2015.Source: https://informnapalm.org/

Still, in some ways, the turret may be somewhat of an imperfect fit. As previously stated, without an effort to up-armor it, it has much lighter armor protection than the hull, though it could be said that even without additional armor, the base hull of a T-62 is not protected against many modern anti-tank weapons. The vehicle would have a crew reduced to three due to the Berezhok turret only having two crewmembers, which would change aspects of the vehicle’s maintenance.

Conclusion – A Potentially Potent Modernization, Yet to Enter Service

Overall, the reasoning behind the modernization of the T-62 with the Berezhok turret by Algeria is a fairly reasonable process. With somewhat uncommon ammunition, the T-62’s original armament would have been harder to maintain. While the armament on 100 mm-armed tanks was modernized (in 2018, Algerian T-55s received the ability to fire Ukrainian 100 mm Stugna gun-launched anti-tank missiles), it does not appear there were efforts to offer the same capacities to T-62s, despite gun-launched 115 mm-missiles also being available.

The Berezhok modernization does give the vehicle a considerable amount of firepower which can be used for fire-support roles. The 2A42, AGS-30M, and thermobaric warheads for the Kornet are all potent weapon systems for such roles. It is likely Algeria can very easily see use for this type of vehicle. In its history, the country has at times been the victim of heavily-armed terrorists, a consequence of the almost unpatrollable borders in the Sahara, alongside unstable countries. A prominent example in the last decade was the In Amenas hostage crisis of January 2013. Al-Qaeda terrorists took over a gas facility in the Sahara, on Algeria’s border with Libya, taking hundreds of Algerian workers and dozens of foreigners hostage. This forced the Algerian Army to conduct an assault. Historically, fighting in urban areas against terrorists has been a major concern for the ANP. The potency of a vehicle such as the modernized T-62 in such a role is not to be underestimated, particularly if the vehicle is to receive explosive-reactive armor (ERA), although tas of July 2022, the vehicle has only been seen without such protection.

Algerian T-62. Illustration by David Bocquelet.

Algerian T-62, red primer. Illustration by David Bocquelet.

T-62 with Berezhok turret. Illustration by David Bocquelet, modified by Pavel “Carpaticus” Alexe, funded by our Patreon campaign.

T-62 with Berezhok turret, modified parts still in red primer. Illustration by David Bocquelet, modified by Pavel “Carpaticus” Alexe, funded by our Patreon campaign.

Sources

El Moudjahid Nation : Base centrale logistique de Beni Merad à Blida : Renforcer les capacités des unités de combat, 26-01-2021: https://www.elmoudjahid.dz/fr/nation/base-centrale-logistique-de-beni-merad-a-blida-renforcer-les-capacites-des-unites-de-combat-4618
Forcesdz.com: https://www.forcesdz.com/viewtopic.php?f=19&t=1741
T-62 on Tankograd: https://thesovietarmourblog.blogspot.com/2015/12/t-62.html#cannon
30×165 mm cartridges on Tankograd: https://thesovietarmourblog.blogspot.com/p/30x165mm-cartridges.html
BMP-2 on Tankograd: https://thesovietarmourblog.blogspot.com/2016/05/bmp-2.html#mob
30 mm HE Round IO-30 (VOG-17) for Automatic Grenade Launcher AGS-17 on Kintex: https://kintex.bg/product-4-242#tabs-1
“Un Mini-Terminator inédit pour l’Algérie” on Menadefense, August 28 2021: https://www.menadefense.net/algerie/un-mini-terminator-inedit-pour-lalgerie/
Algeria upgrades BMP-2s with Berezhok turret on military.africa: https://www.military.africa/2021/05/algeria-upgrades-bmp-2s-with-berezhok-turret

Cold War Mali Armor Cold War Soviet Vehicles in Foreign Service Malian Armor

PT-76 in Malian Service

A Malian PT-76 in a bicolour, tropical camouflage

Republic of Mali (1975-Present)
Amphibious Light Tank – 20 Received

The Republic of Mali, which gained independence from France in 1960, very quickly became a dictatorship closely aligned to the Soviet Union. Its first ruler, Modibo Keïta, aligned with a Socialist ideology, which led to the very first armored vehicles of the Malian Army, T-34-85s and BTR-40s, being received merely months after the country became independent. In the following years, and despite Keïta being overthrown in 1968, and Mali joining the Non-Aligned Movement, the country would retain close ties with the Soviet Union. This would lead to continued Soviet deliveries of arms to Mali, including a contingent of PT-76 light tanks in 1975.

Two Malian PT-76s during exercises. Source: Oryx Blog

The PT-76 Arrives in Mali

By 1975, Mali was under the rule of General Moussa Traoré. Though less ideological than his predecessor Keïta, whom he had overthrown, Traoré remained aligned with the Soviet Union, and in 1975, his country received a shipment of varied Soviet vehicles. These included 10 BRDM-2s, 10 BTR-152s, and 20 PT-76s. It is unknown when Mali received its fleet of T-54s, but these may also have been part of this same shipment.

Mali was, and still is, one of the poorest countries in the world, and indeed this 1975 shipment of Soviet armor is widely believed to have been sent as aid with little to no payment from Mali. All the vehicles appear to have been second-hand, seeing as overall, all were of models already in service in the Soviet Army for years.

The Malian PT-76s are somewhat curious in that they are far from the most common PT-76 variant. The Malian Army vehicles are PT-76 Model 1952. These are the second production model of the vehicle. They are quite easy to differentiate from the more common posterior PT-76s thanks to their elongated muzzle brakes with a large number of vertical slot openings. In comparison, the most commonly exported PT-76 models, the Model 1957 and onward (also known as PT-76B), use a ‘German-Style’ muzzle break.

Operational Service

Little is known of the operational use of the PT-76s in the Traoré years. In December 1985, Mali waged a short 5-day war against its neighbor, Burkina Faso, over the Agacher Strip, but this was a small-scale conflict and it is not known if the PT-76s were engaged.

A Malian Army PT-76 in a unicolor green camouflage, alongside a ZPU-1 14.5 mm AA gun in the streets of Bamako during the 2012 coup. Source: Esoteric Armor Blog

A wider shot of what is very likely the same vehicle, alongside a BTR-60 APC. Source: Esoteric Armor Blog

Since the collapse of the Traoré regime in 1991, further openness from Mali has allowed more views of the PT-76 to emerge. During the March 2012 coup, during which Malian president Amadou Toumani Touré was overthrown, PT-76s were seen in the streets of Bamako, sometimes alongside BTR-60PBs, which may suggest the vehicles were in use in the neighboring Malian Army base of Kati.

Camouflage and Markings

One of the more interesting aspects of the Malian PT-76s is the variety of camouflages the vehicles have been seen in over the years.

During the 2012 coup, the PT-76s seen appeared in a classic plain green camouflage scheme. A similar scheme was also seen in what are likely earlier photos. Though the vehicle seen during the coup does not appear to have had any markings, PT-76s have also been seen with the same plain green camouflage scheme but bearing commemorative names. Interestingly enough, all names seen on Malian PT-76 are historical references to Mali’s medieval era. While historical names have also been seen on other types of Malian vehicles, commemorative names coming from modern Malian officers or geographical areas are also commonly seen on other Malian armored fighting vehicles but have never been seen on the PT-76s.

PT-76 “Askia Mohamed” during a military parade. Askia Mohamed was a ruler of the Songhai Empire in the 15th and 16th centuries. Source: Oryx Blog

PT-76 “Kirina 1235”. This name is a reference to the 1235 Battle of Kirina, fought by the Mandinka people against the Sosso people. The victory of the Mandinka led to them founding the Empire of Mali, which would be a dominant power in West Africa during the following centuries. Source: Oryx Blog

PT-76 “Touramakan Traore” was named after a general of the Mali Empire in the 13th century, and a major figure of the empire’s expansion leading to it becoming the dominant power in West Africa. Source: Oryx Blog

PT-76 “Biton Coulibaly”, named after the founder of one of the later empires which blossomed on territories currently owned by Mali, the Bambara Empire, in the 18th century. Source: Oryx Blog

A PT-76 with a bicolor yellow and green camouflage at a Malian Army base. The turret side of a ZSU-23-4 “Shilka” can be seen to the right. Source: Hammer of War

Another PT-76, most likely the one just in front of the first vehicle, with a more complicated quadricolor camouflage. Source: Hammer of War

More recently, photos of PT-76s in Malian Army bases have shown them with a much wider variety of colors. The vehicle have both been seen in a green and yellow camouflage scheme, or a more multicolor scheme including dark green, brown, beige, and black, itself varying in the way it is applied, sometimes being fairly neatly separated, but sometimes featuring lines of various colors in large spots of others. Most of these vehicles have little to no markings.

Vehicles of Questionable Operability

Though their service is fairly obscure, the Malian PT-76s are dated vehicles, and while they have not been removed from the Malian Armed Forces’ inventory, their present operability is questionable.

The Malian Army’s main adversaries, ever since the last conflict with Burkina Faso, have largely been Tuareg rebels, which typically engage in guerilla operations, including ambushes and harassment over the vast Sahara desert. Tracked armored fighting vehicles generally do poorly in these conditions, having lackluster range to cover the massive expanses of the Sahara Desert. In this environment, the Malian Army has preferred the use of wheeled vehicles over them. This has comprised, to an extent, the BRDM-2 and BTR-60PB, but mostly the use of technicals, which have formed the backbone of the Malian army in the north of the country. As such, it is unlikely any Malian PT-76 has ever been lost in combat.

What appear to be US servicemen, which have been involved as instructors in Mali, on a PT-76. The type appears to be the most operational model of “tank” used by the Malian Army, but this is not saying much. Source: Hammer of War

However, because of the nature of the military operations Mali has recently undertaken its tanks fleet, comprising PT-76s, T-54s, Type 62s, and even T-34-85s, has found itself generally being almost completely out of operational use. What the Malian Army has opted to do broadly is to maintain the vehicles, perhaps in case of tensions with another state in the region, and to keep them stored in military bases, seemingly mostly around Sikasso, in Mali’s southernmost province, but rarely, if ever, use them operationally. In this regard, the PT-76s are actually the most actively used Malian tanks, seeing as the type was seen in the 2012 coup, which may suggest some could be stored in other places aside from Sikasso, which is fairly distant from the capital, Bamako.

A report from 2011-2012 states that Mali still had 18 PT-76s, but suffered from its stocks of 76 mm ammunition mostly being faulty, which would considerably hamper the vehicle’s combat capacities. It has been claimed that some sort of small-scale refurbishment program has been put in place in order to keep some of the fleet operational, which the use of the vehicle in 2012 may corroborate. Nonetheless, some other recent photos show PT-76s abandoned, or at least very lacking maintenance, with graffiti drawn on the sides of the vehicle, and it is likely that considerable work would have to be done in order to bring Mali’s PT-76s to a truly operable state.

PT-76s in what appear to be a poorly-maintained state at a Malian Army base. Source: Hammer of War

Conclusion – Mali’s Ageing Light Tanks

In the second half of 2021, Mali has made steps to shift from France and its Western allies diplomatically, and rather attempt to reinforce its relationships with Russia, which may result in the Wagner Private Military Corporation contractors being deployed in Mali. Though it is a long shot, this mounting relation with Russia may perhaps, if Mali desires so, ease obtaining spare parts and technicians which may help refurbish and maintain operational Mali’s old Soviet armor. Nonetheless, the type remains out of place in the counter-insurgency warfare operations in the vast desert the Malian Army is to undertake in the Sahara. As such, it is just as likely that the vehicles will continue to remain in a state of disrepair.

A Malian Army PT-76 in bicolor camouflage. Whether such vehicles may be better-maintained and see more use in the future or remain in the fringes of Mali’s military equipment, remains unknown. Source: Hammer of War

A Malian PT-76 in a bicolour, tropical camouflage

A Malian PT-76 in a varied multicolour camouflage. Both illustrations created by Pavel “Carpaticus” Alexe based on work by Tank Encyclopedia’s own David Bocquelet.

Sources

Esoteric Armour – Mali PT-76

Oryx Blog: Sons of Bamako – Malian Armed Forces Fighting Vehicles

Oryx Blog: Commemorative Names On Malian Army Vehicles And Artillery

Armée malienne : le difficile inventaire, Jeune Afrique

Hammer of War on twitter

Cold War Soviet Vehicles in Foreign Service Has Own Video Modern Transnistrian Armor

GT-MU Fire Support Vehicle

Transnistrian GT-MU with camouflage net

Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic (2018 At The Latest-Present)
Fire Support Vehicle – At Least 3 Converted

The Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic, better known as Transnistria, is a breakaway state located in the internationally-recognized territories of the Republic of Moldova, on the Eastern side of the Dniester River, along the border with Ukraine. It seceded from Moldova during the dissolution of the Soviet Union, due to its ethnic makeup including a large number of Ukrainians and Russians who did not want to be part of the Moldovan state. The unrecognized state’s army has relied on leftover Soviet equipment from the former 14th Guards Army, which was based at Transnistria’s capital of Tiraspol, to equip its formations. This army’s location near an important river led to it having a large quantity of various engineering vehicles, which Transnistria has had to find use for and re-purpose for the defence of its territories. An example of these is the GT-MU, of which some examples have been converted to serve as fire-support vehicles.

The GT-MU Multi-Purpose Vehicle

The GT-MU (GT-MU being the Soviet Army designation; it is referred to as GAZ-73 by the manufacturer, Gorky Automobile Plant) is a small tracked vehicle which entered production in the Soviet Union in 1971. The vehicle is based on the previous GT-SM or GAZ-71, a fully tracked but unarmored tractor/prime mover with six road wheels. The GT-SM itself was based on the previous GT-S or GAZ-47, a vehicle of similar purpose from the mid-1950s.

A GT-MU, in the forefront, and a GT-SM to its rear, negotiate a muddy path in the USSR. Source: drive2.ru

In comparison to the GT-SM, the GT-MU was shortened to have six road wheels, but adopted a fully armored body with an all-round thickness of 6 mm. The vehicle is best described as a small and light multi-purpose ‘mule’, with a loaded weight of 5.8 tonnes on average, a length of 5.15 m, a width of 2.47 m and a height of 1.70 m. The movement of its tracks provides amphibious capabilities, and is powered by a V8 115 hp liquid-cooled engine, giving it a fairly high power-to-weight ratio of 26.24 hp/ton. The vehicle uses a torsion bar suspension with a front sprocket. There is no rear idler wheel, with the road wheel furthest to the back playing the role of keeping the track tensioned. The vehicle is able to reach about 55 km/h on roads and 5.5 km/h in the water.

In the Soviet Army, the GT-MU could be used as an armored personnel carrier. In addition to a crew of two, a driver and a commander, it could carry eight infantry dismounts in a rear compartment. However, with no armament to speak of (firing ports were present in the infantry dismount compartment though) and little armor protection, the vehicle was far less optimal than the various BTRs for this role, and this was not its main intended usage. The GT-MU was to serve as a prime mover which could, for example, tow 85 mm D-44 or 100 mm MT-12 anti-tank guns, or mortars. The vehicle could also be employed for a large variety of specialist uses, including by border guard units, and as an electronic warfare vehicle with radar jamming devices or a surveying vehicle, with the large rear compartment being used to house specialist equipment. Overall, the vehicle served as a formidable multi-purpose ‘mule’, not too different from the pre-war T-20 Komsolets or the post-war AT-P in a general role, though adapted for a much more technological and communications-based conflict.

The GT-MU in the Transnistrian Army

The GT-MU was in service in considerable numbers with the 14th Guards Army, with its headquarters in Tiraspol, Transnistria. Considering its location around the Dniester, the use of various engineering and multi-purpose vehicles was not lost on this particular Army.

During the breakdown of the Soviet Union, Transnistria affirmed its independence from Moldova due to conflicts over the prevalence of the Moldovan language and ethnicity. Though officially not involved, the 14th Guards Army often opened its warehouses to Transnistrian forces, gifted them equipment, or trained them. From this source, Transnistria is thought to have obtained a fleet of one or two dozen GT-MUs, though exact numbers are unknown. The vehicles are not known to have been used during the 1990-1992 war with Moldova.

A Transnistrian GT-MU leads a column of Pribor-1 Multiple Rocket Launcher Systems based on ZiL-131 trucks. Source: Oryx blog on twitter

The GT-MU was pressed into service with the Transnistrian Army to fulfil many tasks which were fairly similar to what was expected of them in the Soviet Army. The vehicle has still been regularly used as a prime mover for artillery pieces and mortars. However, the use of advanced jamming or surveying vehicles is rather lost on a Transnistrian military which struggles to obtain enough basic combat vehicles to outfit its formations. For these reasons, GT-MUs were quickly repurposed for other roles for which their small size, decent internal space, and good mobility could prove favorable. The vehicles have, for example, been used as artillery observation vehicles to guide the fire of Transnistrian multiple rocket launchers, or as command vehicles.

The Fire-Support GT-MU

The most recently known Transnistrian GT-MU conversion takes a much more direct approach to using the GT-MU in an active fighting role. In November 2018, three GT-MUs converted to operate as fire-support vehicles appeared during firing exercises, alongside T-64BVs and artillery pieces of the PMR.

The three observed GT-MU fire support vehicles of the Transnistrian military in November 2018. Source: Oryx Blog

Footage of Transnistrian firing exercises in November 2018. The GT-MUs can be observed around 1:34. Source: youtube

The vehicles received a 73 mm SPG-9 to the center-right of the vehicle. This is a recoilless rifle that has been in service of the Soviet Army from the early 1960s and uses the same 73 mm projectiles as the ‘Grom’ main armament on the BMP-1 and BMD-1. The gun mounted on the GT-MU has seemingly kept the tripod used in field configurations. It is used alongside a PGQ-9 optical sight with 4x magnification, and can be used with a PGN-9 passive night sight.

A number of different armor-piercing projectiles exist for the gun, all HEAT-FS and 920 mm long. The earliest, the PG-9 or PG-9V, is fired at 435 m/s and contains 322 grams of hexogen, ensuring an armor penetration of 300 mm at all ranges. A further development, the PG-9N, traded the hexogen for 340 g of the OKFOL-3.5 explosive mixture, achieving an armor-piercing performance of around 400 mm. The most effective shell, the PG-9VNT, has a tandem warhead and is thought to be able to penetrate up to 550 mm or to retain armor-penetrating capabilities of 400 mm after going through Explosive Reactive Armor (ERA) plating which would have stopped older projectiles, though it is slower, at just 400 m/s. It is unknown whether Transnistrian forces have any of these more advanced shells in stock though. The crucial issue of all these armor-piercing projectiles is their low velocity and effective range, connecting hits becoming particularly difficult after about 700-800 m and mostly based on luck over a kilometer – ranges at which vehicles armed with higher velocity guns, including autocannons, can be expected to be using them if the terrain allows to. The rate of fire is also fairly limited, at 5 to 6 rounds per minute with a well-trained loader. The armor-piercing capacities of 73 mm projectiles can be lacking against modern main battle tanks, but the Moldovan Army, Transnistria’s most likely opponent, does not field anything with stronger armor than a BMP-2, which would be easily penetrated by any armor-piercing SPG-9 projectile.

Two of the GT-MUs during the firing exercises, the one to the right having just fired its gun. Source: youtube

Explosive shells also exist, with the standard OG-9V containing 735 g of TNT fired at 316 m/s.

On the Transnistrian vehicles, from what has been observed, because of the location of the gun, two crew members have to operate it in quite a precarious position. The loader operates behind the rifle, in an uncomfortable position, with a foot on a metallic bar located behind the rear of the vehicle’s hull, which presumably can only be used when the vehicle is stationary. The gunner reaches from a hatch on the left side of the vehicle to fire the weapon.

A side view of one of the vehicles, showing the very precarious positions for the crew operating the gun. Source: Oryx Blog

The gunner reaches out of his hatch, a second before firing. Source: youtube

The vehicle likely comprises a crew of either three or four: driver, loader, and gunner, with the presence of a commander up to debate. The infantry compartment at the rear of the vehicle has likely been recycled to hold a potentially considerable quantity of 73 mm projectiles, which would allow for the vehicle to continue fighting for extended periods of time, though the precarious crew positions and very low survivability due to the mere 6 mm of armor protection of the vehicle would be the biggest obstacle to overcome in this regard. The vehicle shown during the November 2018 exercises did feature some camouflage nets, which do suggest awareness of the weakness of the vehicle’s armor protection, and intended use of the vehicle in ambush or defensive positions. On the positive side of things, the amphibious capacities of the vehicles are likely to be appreciated by the Transnistrian Army, seeing as the border with Moldova is mostly placed on the Dniester, which the GT-MU-based vehicle could cross without having to depend on bridges.

One of the three vehicles observed in 2018, with ample camo netting hiding much of the silhouette of the GT-MU, including the gun. Source: Oryx Blog

Conclusion – A Weapon of Circumstance

The GT-MU fire support vehicle is one of several Transnistrian conversions and creations which have popped up in the 2010s, testimonies of the struggle of the unrecognized state to modernize its armored forces. Imports of foreign armored vehicles are almost impossible for Transnistria, which is not formally recognized by any state, despite deep ties to Russia, and the breakaway state largely has to make do with what it has modified from captured 14th Guards Army stocks.

In this regard, the creation of the GT-MU fire-support vehicle makes a lot of sense. When observing the vehicle, one may at first view see it as a horrible conversion, with poor operating positions, and which aims to bring into combat a vehicle of which the armor protection does not exceed 6 mm, making it extremely vulnerable against any weapon with some anti-armor capacities. However, these conversions essentially allow the Transnistrian Army to extend the size of its mobile firepower, which otherwise is limited to the number of more classic vehicles it inherited and is able to maintain. It speaks of Transnistria’s ingenuity, but also desperation.

Transnistrian GT-MU with a camouflage net

Transnistrian GT-MU. Both illustrations were created by Godzilla.

GT-MU Fire Support Vehicle Specifications
Length	5.15 m
Width	2.47 m
Engine	GAZ-73 V8 115hp liquid-cooled engine
Suspension	Torsion bars
Crew	Likely 3 to 4 (driver, gunner, loader, perhaps a commander)
Armament	73 mm SPG-9 recoilless rifle
Armor	6 mm all around
Numbers converted	3

Sources

http://army.lv/ru/gt-mu-1d/742/70

https://weaponsystems.net/system/646-73mm+SPG-9

Oryx Blog:

A Forgotten Army: Transnistria’s Little Tank Buster That Could

The Victory Day Parade That Everyone Forgot

Twitter

Cold War Soviet Vehicles in Foreign Service Has Own Video Modern German Other Vehicles

BMP-1A1 Ost and BMP-1 in Reunified German Service

Post author By Marisa Belhote
Post date November 10, 2021
3 Comments on BMP-1A1 Ost and BMP-1 in Reunified German Service

Illustrations for the BMP-1A1 Ost, created by Pavel “Carpaticus” Alexe based on work by David Bocquelet

Federal Republic of Germany (1991-1994)
Infantry Fighting Vehicle – 764 BMP-1 Operated, Around 580 Upgraded Into BMP-1A1

During the Cold War, the two German states, the FDR/Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland) in the west and the GDR/German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik/DDR) in the east, stood as two foot soldiers of NATO and the Warsaw Pact on the forefront of the Iron Curtain. Being certainly located on a major battlefield of a new all-out European war, both German states were considerably remilitarized when they were allowed to have their own armed forces, from the 1950s onward. As such, the East German NVA (Nationale Volksarmee/National People’s Army) received a total of around 1,133 BMP-1s from 1968 (when two training vehicles were received) to 1988, including a number of BVP-1s produced in neighbouring Czechoslovakia. Outside of a mere 24 BMP-2s, the BMP-1 was the sole infantry fighting vehicle in service with the NVA. With the peaceful conclusion of the Cold War though, these BMP-1s would never be consumed in great battles on the German plains. Instead, the East German BMP-1 fleet was inherited by the West German Bundeswehr, which now had to ponder what to do with this large fleet of infantry fighting vehicles, vastly different from its own Marders.

Schützenpanzer BMP-1

When first pushed into service in the late 1960s, the BMP-1 was a major addition to the Soviet Red Army’s Arsenal, and despite the existence of some previous vehicles, such as the West German HS.30, it is often considered to be the first truly modern Infantry Fighting Vehicle (IFV) to be adopted in massive numbers – at least was for the Eastern Bloc. The vehicle could be used to support armored assault in all types of terrains thanks to its amphibious capacities, and was notably able to carry a section of infantry even in heavily contaminated terrain which would typically be expected after the use of NBC (Nuclear, Biological, Chemical) weapons. Support for accompanying tanks as well as dismounted infantry would be provided by a 73 mm Grom infantry support gun and a Malyutka missile launcher, with four missiles stored in the vehicle, for use against armored vehicles.

West German Schützenpanzer HS.30. Source: panzerbauer

NVA Schützenpanzer BMP-1s crossing a river during an exercise. Amphibious capacity was a major aspect of the BMP-1’s design. Source: Pinterest

In East Germany, the BMP-1 was the only infantry fighting vehicle available in large numbers – only 24 examples of its successor, the BMP-2, were ever delivered. The NVA also received nine BRM-1K recon vehicles and two BREM-CH armored recovery vehicles.

In the last days of the NVA, the BMP-1 outfitted six motorized rifle regiments, the 3rd, 7th, 9th, 16th, 23rd, and 27th. Though it appears a total of 1,133 BMP-1s had been delivered to the NVA, a few had been phased out during the 1980s due to wear and tear, and as such, 1,112 were available. This total included both some baseline BMP-1s and a considerable number of vehicles that had gone through the BMP-1P upgrade, which replaced the Malyutka missile with the more modern Konkurs, a new fire-extinction system to counter napalm, and an array of six Tucha 81 mm smoke grenades located on the rear roof of the turret. In East German service, the vehicles were known as Schützenpanzer BMP-1.

The German reunification

After years of crisis and decline, tensions within East Germany exploded in 1989. First, citizens tried to leave or apply for visas, notably using Hungary to try and cross into neutral Austria and from there into the democratic West Germany. With the opening of the border between the two starting in August 1989, tens of thousands of East Germans moved into Austria and later West Germany going through Hungary, seeking reunion with family and/or better opportunities in a more prosperous economy. Things escalated further in November, with massive protests in East German cities, while the opening of the West German-Czechoslovak border created yet another, even more easily accessible entry into West Germany for East Germans. By 9th of November, travel restrictions between the two Germanies were lifted; the once impenetrable Berlin wall started to be taken down.

In March 1990, in the last elections of East Germany, a branch of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) which supported quick reunification was appointed, with the following, last few months of East Germany’s existence being focused on quickly integrating East Germany into the Federal Republic. On 3rd October 1990, the five states of East Germany, as well as East Berlin, were formally integrated into the Federal Republic. The DDR and its armed branch, the NVA, were no more.

Former NVA armored vehicles, including, to the left, a BMP-1A1 Ost, in the Neubrandenburg repair facilities. Source: bmpsvu.ru

The large quantities of equipment left behind by the NVA were taken over by the Materiel Depot Service Gesellschaft (Material Service Depot Company/MDSG) to be warehoused and maintained. In December of 1990, it was decided the BMP-1 was one of the pieces of equipment of the former NVA that would, for a time, be operated by the Bundeswehr. Some 764 vehicles were to be pressed back into service.

The BMP-1 in Bundeswehr units

The BMP-1s were to outfit six units which were created in April of 1991 from re-forming six East German divisions, two armored and four motorized rifles divisions. These became Heimatschutzbrigade (Eng: Homeland Security Brigade) 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, and 42. Heimatschutzbrigade 37 and 41 were the ones formed from former NVA tank divisions, and also included T-72 tanks, while the other four were the ones formed from motorized rifles divisions.

Another piece of formerly East German equipment, a T-72 tank, in service with Heimatschutzbrigade 37, Dresden, 1991. Source: twitter

The issue of Eastern Block standards

When inspecting and evaluating the BMP-1, it was found that the vehicle did not meet many of the standards expected of armored fighting vehicles of the Bundeswehr – more so in ergonomic qualities than in combat elements.

The vehicle’s front and rear lights were not up to the standards of West German vehicles. The lack of wing mirrors was noted. More worryingly, a number of elements which were not up to West German safety or health standards were found in the BMP-1. The fuel tanks embedded in the rear doors were thought to be a hazard. As the vast majority of operators of the type, the Bundeswehr found the interior cramped. Firing the 73 mm Grom’s ammunition was found to release potentially toxic nitroglycerin, while the coaxial 7.62 mm PKT would potentially release mercury. Toxic asbestos was also present in the brake bands, clutch lining, and gaskets.

If the BMP-1 was to remain in Bundeswehr service, these issues had to be fixed. The upgrades were designed by SIVG (System-Instandsetzungsund Verwertungsgesellschaft/System-Repair and Recovery Company) and FUG (Fahrzeug und Umwelttechnik Gesellschaft mbH/Vehicle and Environment Technology Company). SIVG was specialized in the demilitarization of armored fighting vehicles, while FUG was a manufacturer of commercial vehicles. It appears the former was a formerly East German maintenance facility, while the latter was a facility located in the West. The first three vehicles were converted as prototypes at Reparaturwerk Neubrandenburg (Neubrandenburg repair workshop), which was the main maintenance facility for BMP-1s in East Germany. This plant had been set up goind back to 1953 for the maintenance of Soviet and East German vehicles, and had the reputation to be one of the largest of its kind in Europe. It emloyed around 4,700 personnel. These first three conversions happened from January to March 1991. After they proved satisfactory, the upgrade was standardized as the BMP-1A1 ‘Ost’ (East). A further 100 vehicles were converted in Neubrandenburg from May to September of 1991, and another 399 at the same facility from October of 1991 to January of 1993. A further 83 vehicles were modernized by the SIZ 890 repair base located in Doberlug, another town of the Brandenburg province. The vehicles which were selected to be upgraded were the BMP-1 in the best conditions, which usually were BMP-1Ps. The total cost the German Ministry of Defence shared with the Bundestag for these conversions was at this point of 36.6 millions Deutschmarks (DMs). The goal of the upgrade program was to provide a stopgap until the Marder 2 would enter service, which was at this point scheduled for 1996. This never ended up happening, as the Marder 2 was cancelled. There was, however, also a political motivation behind such a refit, as it would showcase the Bundeswehr was actively integrating equipment from East Germany. Converting a vehicle took 250 to 268 working hours, which were usually performed in about 18 days.

Two of the three BMP-1A1 Ost prototypes at Reparaturwerk Neubrandenburg, 15th of May 1991. Source: bmpvsu.ru

Driving upgrades

Many of the additions brought by the Ost upgrade aimed at making the BMP-1 compliant with West German road regulations, and follow the same standard as West German vehicles. This translated in the vehicle’s headlights being replaced by some identical to those on the the Marder 1A3. In front of those headlights, small orange identification lights were placed. The same horn as on the Marder was also installed.

A close-up of the front-side glacis of the BMP-1A1 Ost of the Munster tank museum, showing the new light and headlight. Source: Vitaly V.Kuzmin collection via bmpvsu.ru

A BMP-1A1 Ost with the rearview mirrors retracted against the hull. Source: bmpvsu.ru

Externally visible changes included a pair of wing mirrors, located behind the headlights. These could be retracted, with the glass facing against the hull. At the rear, rear lights were added to ease convoy driving. If, for one reason or another, the lights had to be turned off, a Leitkreuz (guiding cross) was added on the left rear door. This was a green rubber sheet on which a white cross was painted. A small 24V lamp was installed at the center of this cross to illuminate it at night, allowing the next vehicle to follow when driving in convoys at night.

A rear view of the Munster tank museum’s BMP-1A1 Ost, showing the new rear light and Leitkreuz. Source: bmpvsu.ru

The Ost upgrade also included a short metal ladder on the rear of the left fender, in order to ease climbing into or descending from the vehicle. It has often been claimed the vehicle received a set of West German smoke grenades. However, this does not appear to be the case. BMP-1A1 vehicles either do not feature smoke grenades, or feature them in the exact same arrangement as the standard BMP-1P. It appears that, for these vehicles, the original Tucha 81 mm smoke grenades were retained.

The new ladder seen on a Hellenic Army BMP-1 located on the grounds of the ELVO military company, 2015. Source: bmpvsu.ru

Safety improvements

The Ost upgraded vehicles were purged of all asbestos, of which the use is entirely banned in Germany. Much more significantly for the capacities of the vehicle, the 5th gear, the last of the gearbox, was locked on the vehicle, which reduced its maximum speed to 40 km/h, likely in a bid to ease maintenance and reduce wear and tear on the vehicle. The vehicles were also prohibited from driving on public roads, likely due to excessive wear and tear brought by their tracks. On private roads, the vehicles were prohibited fromgoing over 20 km/h. Thankfully, the vehicle were based either on or very close to the training facilities they were being used on. The clutch was optimized to allow for a smooth start of the vehicle, and the braking system was modified so that a handbrake was present for both tracks. The upgrade added a heater to keep the crew comfortable in winter conditions. At last, the fuel tanks present in the rear doors were removed and prevented from being filled. It is sometimes reported the fuel tanks were instead filled with styrofoam.

The inside of the BMP-1A1 Ost present at the Munster Tank Museum. Note the amber-colored protective cover for the periscope mount, designed to prevent the crew from hitting and injuring themselves against the sharp corners of the periscope. Source: bmpvsu.ru

On the inside of the vehicle, efforts were made to make the BMP-1 more comfortable. This was manifested in the addition of a heater as well as elements such as covers protecting the edges of the observation devices used by the dismounts in order to prevent head injuries. An anti-slip coating was also added on a number of points on the exterior of the vehicle’s hull.

A view of the BMP-1A1 Ost’s deck hatches. Anti-slip coating was applied near the center; it was also present on the vehicle’s fenders and hull top. Source: Recomonkey

What could not be fixed

The BMP-1A1 remained a moderate upgrade in scope, intended only to make the BMP-1 conform to German regulations. Many issues of the vehicle could never be fixed, and in several ways, the BMP-1A1 was inferior to even a baseline BMP-1 when looked solely through the lens of combat capacities. It ought to be noted the vehicle was also made lighter by 90 kg.

The most pressing issue likely was the armament not being up to Bundeswehr regulations. This was never fixed, though it appears some thought was given into researching 73 mm ammunition that would not eject nitrocellulose. On April 15 1991, approval was given for the production of safe pratcice rounds. Numbers to be procured rose to 80,000 73 mm and 3 millions 7.62 mm projectiles, which differed in the propellant used. It is unclear whether this batch of safe practice ammunition was ever completed and fielded*; As a consequence, regulations prohibited the use of armament on the BMP-1A1 Ost in peacetime. The autoloading mechanism was also removed from the vehicle. The BMP-1 can easily be reloaded manually, but this brought further overtasking for the sole crewman in the turret. Furthermore, the Ost upgrade also removed the missile launcher and guidance equipment, may it be for the Malyutka or the Konkurs/Fagot. Because of this, German regulations rated the vehicle as able to combat at ranges of 2,000 to 600 m by day, and below 400 m at night. Firing from the firing ports to any useful effect was found not to be possible, and as a whole the Soviet doctrine of “mounted combat” was considered to be inapplicable.

BMP-1A1 Osts at the conclusion of their upgrade in the Neubrandenburg repair facility. None bear an ATGM. This feature was removed from the Ost upgrade outright. Source: bmpsvu.ru

Additionally, while some efforts were made to make the inside more ergonomic, these were only details, and the limited volume of the BMP-1’s infantry compartment was something that was not fixable without a deep transformation of the vehicle the Bundeswehr was not willing to perform.

German service

The BMP-1A1 Ost were delivered to the Heimatschutzbrigades from late 1991 to early 1993.

Former NVA conscripts, now Bundeswehr soldiers receiving their BMP-1A1 Ost at Neubrandenburg. They sport mixed East and West German kit, with MPI-AK-74 and MG3s and uniforms mixing mostly West German elements with some East German ones. Source: bmpsvu.ru

A similar photo of Bundeswehr soldiers receiving their BMPs. Source: bmpsvu.ru

They were operated in a transitional period for the Bundeswehr, which was incorporating the former NVA within its rank. The BMP-1A1 Ost was, as such, largely meant as a training vehicle as well as a way for the Bundeswehr to keep the last generation of NVA conscripts in operation, with vehicles, without having to re-train them for vastly different West German APCs or IFVs. The units which operated the BMP-1A1 often had a very mixed kit: the dismounts of the vehicle were typically observed using the West German MG3 machine-gun, but the East German MPi AK-74 rifle. Indeed, it appears that the standard loadout for squads mounted in the vehicle included a machine-gunner with an MG3, while other dismounts used a AK-74N. The driver and gunner were armed with AKS-74N rifles with folding stocks. There were plans to also arm such squads with the Panzerfaust 3 anti-tank weapon, but it was not yet fielded. Similarly, their base uniform is the West German one, but they retain some pieces of East German kit.

A BMP-1A1 Ost being resupplied by Panzergrenadiers during exercises in Franken. Source: bmpsvu.ru

Interestingly enough, the Neubrandenburg repair plant even went through the hassle of creating a driver’s training BMP-1A1 Ost by mounting the cabin of a FAP-500U, an East German driver’s training vehicle based on the ZSU-57-2, in place of the turret of a BMP.

The unique BMP-1A1 Ost driver’s training vehicle. Source: bmpsvu.ru

The FAP-500U driver’s training vehicle, itself a local East German conversion. Source: makettinfo.hu

A cheap and available off-the-shelf IFV for sale

Considering the BMP-1A1 Ost’s role as a training vehicle as well as a way to maintain East German conscripts in operation for the duration of their service, it is not surprising the vehicle did not remain in service with the Bundeswehr for long. While some may imagine the reunification of Germany would have meant a larger German Army, this was more than offset by the reduction in world tension that followed the end of the Cold War and the following massive reduction in military budget and sizes. The already existing Marder 1 fleet was largely sufficient for German needs, and in the last 1A3 variant, offered a considerably more capable vehicle in comparison to a BMP-1.

53 BMP-1A1 leave German service, replaced by Marder 1A3s, 381th Panzer-Grenadier battalion, 13th of April 1993. Source: www.pzgrenbrig38.de

West German infantryman stands behind a Marder 1A3. The vehicle offered a better solution to the Bundeswehr in comparison to upgraded BMP-1s. Source: Wikimedia commons

The BMP-1A1 Ost were therefore phased out of service in 1993-1994, with the decision to phase the vehicles out of service outright taken as early as January 1993. However, this does not mean they would be scrapped or all placed into museums. While Germany had no interest in a large number of surplus IFVs, some other European countries did. For nations which did not have IFVs, or if so, only in small numbers, a large number of very cheap off-the-shelf vehicles was a very attractive offer. Three European countries ended up purchasing ex East German BMP-1s. For Germany itself, this was found to be an amazing opportunity to recoup the cost undertaken by refitting the vehicles.

Greece bought the bulk of the BMP-1A1 Ost fleet, purchasing one vehicle for trials in 1992 and a batch of 500 ex-Bundeswehr vehicles in 1994, at a low price of just 50,000 Deutschmarks each. Greece also bought the sole BMP-1A1 driver’s training vehicle that had been converted. These would become the only infantry fighting vehicles in Greek service, as the Hellenic Army retired its small fleet of AMX-10Ps at the conclusion of the Cold War. The Greeks further modified their BMP-1 by adding an M2 Browning .50 calibre machine-gun on top of the turret. The vehicle was widely used by Greek mechanized troops, though the fleet has dwindled due to vehicles being sold to Iraq or more recently Egypt, or being used as targets in military exercises. The BMP-3 was considered and even ordered from Russia as a replacement, but the contract was cancelled when the 2008 economic crisis ravaged the Greek economy. From 2014 onward, a portion of the remaining Greek BMP-1A1 fleet was modified, replacing the turret with a ZU-23 dual 23 mm anti-aircraft gun. Around 100 BMP-1A1 Ost, including these conversions, remain in service on the Greek islands of Samos, Chios, Kos, and Lesbos.

A Hellenic Army BMP-1A1 Ost during military exercises in Samos, November 2014. Source: bmpsvu.ru

The Greek ZU-23-armed BMP-1A1 Ost conversion which has been in use since 2014. Source: Twitter

All the remaining BMP-1A1 Ost, save for the few which have remained in Germany, were sold to Sweden as part of a sale of 431 BMP-1s, the other being 290 baseline BMP-1 and 60 BMP-1P. The Swedes ran 350 of their BMP-1s through a series of upgrades performed in the Czech Republic, and with similar goals to the German Ost upgrade. These were designated ‘Pbv 501’. The others were kept as spare parts donors. The Pbv 501s were delivered from 1996 to 2001. It was decided to phase them out in 2000, and most of the vehicles were delivered straight into storage. They were eventually sold back to the Czech company which upgraded them in 2008, which proceeded to sell most of them to Iraq from 2015 onward, something Swedish legislation would not have allowed.

The other Western European BMP-1 upgrade, Sweden’s Pbv 501. Source: armedconflicts

Finland was another buyer of former East-German BMP-1s, but did not purchase a single Ost vehicle. Already a user of the BMP-1 prior to the end of the Cold War, Finland purchased 140 German BMP-1s in 1993-1994 and ran them through their own locally-developed upgrades.

Through both Greece, which transferred 100 BMP-1A1 Ost to the New Iraqi Army in 2005-2006, and the Czech company EXCALIBUR, which delivered a considerable number of Pbv 501, perhaps up to 250, through Bulgaria from 2015 onward, Iraq acquired a considerable number of ex-German BMP-1s. These served alongside surviving vehicles from the Hussein regime as well as BMP-1s delivered from other sources, such as Ukraine. The type has been widely engaged in the conflicts which have ravaged Iraq since. The Pbv 501, notably, being delivered from 2015 onward, were heavily engaged in the counter-offensive against ISIS aiming at taking back Mosul. In the 2014-2017 period, out of 85 destroyed Iraqi BMP-1s, 35 were identified to be Pbv 501s.

Iraqi BMP-1 in October 2017, fighting alongside M1 Abrams during the battle to retake Hawija, by this point the sole remaining ISIS enclave in central Iraq. This photo is unusual in that the vehicle in the foreground is an ex-Greek BMP-1A1 Ost, while the two BMP-1s in the background are ex-Swedish Pbv 501s. Source: bmpsvu.ru

At least one BMP-1A1 Ost has survived in Germany. It is present at the Munster tank Museum, by the side of an unupgraded NVA BMP-1 and the sole NVA BMP-2 to have remained in Germany. A BMP-1A1 Ost has appeared in demonstrations in Germany, though it is unclear if it is the same vehicle.

Conclusion

The BMP-1A1 Ost was an attempt at making a dated piece of Eastern Block equipment compatible with western standards of operation. The upgrade did not attempt to improve the combat capacities of the BMP-1 in any meaningful way, but instead concentrated on ergonomic elements and potential risks encountered when operating the vehicle.

Through the service of the vehicle was very short in Germany, through its export service, it would see four new users in the shape of Sweden, Greece, Egypt and Iraq. The Ost vehicles were significantly modified further for Sweden and by Greece, and through the eventual sale of Pbv 501 and Greek BMP-1A1s to Iraq, it would eventually see significant combat service in the Middle East. One can only wonder if the Iraqi soldiers operating the vehicle appreciated the quality-of-life improvements of the Ost upgrade, particularly when taking into account the removal of the missile armament in comparison.

Illustrations for the BMP-1A1 Ost, created by Pavel “Carpaticus” Alexe based on work by David Bocquelet

BMP-1A1 Ost Specifications
Dimensions ( L x w x h)	6.735 x 2.940 x 1.881 m
Weight	13.5 tonnes
Engine	UTD-20 6-cylinders 300 hp diesel engine
Suspension	Torsion bars
Forward gears	4 (5th gear locked)
Fuel Capacity	330 L (diesel)
Maximum speed (road)	40 km/h
Maximum speed (water)	7-8 km/h
Crew	3 (commander, driver, gunner)
Dismounts	8
Main gun	73 mm 2A28 ‘Grom’ (use prevented by German regulations)
Secondary armament	Coaxial 7.62 mm PKT (use prevented by German regulations)
Smoke grenades	6 x 81 mm 902V Tucha smoke grenades (formerly BMP-1P), none (formerly BMP-1)
Armor	Welded steel, 33 to 6 mm

Sources

Der modifizierte Schützenpanzerwagen BMP-1A1 Ost des DIEHI-Unternehmens SIVG Neubrandenburg, Wielfried Kopenhagen
Unterrichtung durch den Bundesrechnungshof Bemerkungen des Bundesrechnungshofes 1993 zur Haushalts- und Wirtschaftsführung (einschließlich der Feststellungen zur Jahresrechnung des Bundes 1991) (Bundestag Documents, 1993)
SIPRI Arms Transfer Database
BMP-1 field disassembly, Tankograd
Bmpvsu.ru:
BMP of the armed forces of the German Democratic Republic
BMP of the armed forces of the Federal Republic of Germany
BMP-1A1-Ost of the Bundeswehr at the German Tank Museum: https://bmpvsu.ru/frg_museum.php
Pbv-501 in the Swedish army
Pbv-501 in the Iraqi army

Cold War Soviet Vehicles in Foreign Service Cold War Yugoslav Armor Has Own Video

Baterija Raketa Obala-More “BROM” (4K51 Rubezh in Yugoslav Service)

Post author By MarkoPantelic
Post date October 6, 2021
No Comments on Baterija Raketa Obala-More “BROM” (4K51 Rubezh in Yugoslav Service)

Yugoslavian 4K51 Rubezh known as BROM Baterija Raketa Obala-More

Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Successor States (1979-2007)
Anti-Ship Coastal Defense Missile System – 10 Purchased

During the 1960s, the Yugoslav Navy (Jugoslovenska Ratna Mornarica) became interested in Soviet anti-ship missiles for installation on its ships. Based on experiences with these weapon systems, nearly two decades later, the Yugoslav Navy acquired 10 4K51 ‘Rubezh’ coastal defense systems from the Soviet Union. These vehicles and their service in Yugoslavia are generally unknown and very poorly documented, even though they would see use for nearly three decades until finally being phased out of service in 2007.

The 4K51 Rubezh. Source: www.mycity-military.com

In Yugoslavia

The story of how the Yugoslav Navy got its first 4K51 Rubezh vehicles is actually related to the acquisition of 10 Project 205-type missile boats between 1965 and 1969. The armament of these vessels consisted of four 2.5 tonne Soviet P-15 ‘Termit’ anti-ship guided missiles. These carried a 454 kg hollow charge warhead out to a range of 40 kilometres. Additional Soviet naval missile launchers of this type would be purchased from 1976 to 1988 for the needs of Yugoslav Navy. They were mounted on ships like the Rade Končar-class.

The Project 205 missile boats were armed with four P-15 missiles. 10 ships were purchased by the Yugoslav Navy. Source: WIki

Following the experience gained while operating those Soviet anti-ship missiles, the Yugoslav Navy military officials were becoming interested in acquiring a land-based system armed with the same missile. One reason was to supplement the firepower of the coastal artillery, which was mostly based on older Second World War artillery and anti-aircraft guns, such as the German 88 mm Flak. For this reason, in the late 1970s, a purchase agreement for 10 4K51 Rubezh vehicles was signed with the Soviets.

As these vehicles began to arrive, they received a five-digit designation. Somewhat confusingly, these five-digit designations were not given as the vehicles arrived, but instead by their year of production. For example, the vehicle that was built in 1978 was marked as 22764, while the ones built-in 1979 were 22761, 22762, and 22763. Vehicles built in 1980 were marked as 22765, 22766, and 22768. The one produced in 1981 was 22767, and the last two vehicles built in 1983 were marked as 22759 and 22760.

These vehicles were kept under high secrecy by the Yugoslav Navy for some time. For these reasons, their use and pictures of them from this period are quite difficult to find. Their first public appearance was during the last Yugoslav People Army parade held in Belgrade in 1985.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I0QPRiyOSl0

The last JNA (Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija) Parade in Belgrade 1985.

One of the first photographs ever taken of this vehicle in service with the Yugoslav Navy. Source: A. Radić Arsenal 86

The Soviet 4K51 Rubezh

During the late 1960s, the Soviets had the coastal mobile missile system “Redut”. It was basically an 8×8 wheeled chassis armed with one P-35 anti-ship guided missile which carried a 1,000 kg warhead and had a maximum operational range of 450 km. This vehicle was intended to destroy enemy ships at long ranges. However, the Soviet Navy wanted a new missile system that would be capable of engaging enemy ships at closer ranges, but also be able to carry at least two missiles. The new armament of this new vehicle consisted of two P-15M ‘Termit’ tactical anti-ship missiles. The large 8×8 MAZ-543 truck chassis was chosen as the carrier of the system. This new vehicle received the 4K51 Rubezh designation. The 4K51 was adopted into service by the Soviet Navy in late 1970s. Despite being newly designed, it saw use with many Communist countries around the world (Libya, Syria, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Cuba, etc.), including the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

The 4K51 Rubezh in Romanian Service. Source: https://missilery.info/missile/rubeg

Name

In Yugoslav service, the 4K51 Rubezh was generally known as BROM, Baterija Raketa Obala-More (English: Missile Battery Coast-Sea). This was actually the name given to the unit which operated these vehicles. Why this designation was used instead of the original one is unfortunately not mentioned in the sources.

Organization

The BROMs were intended to be used as a “deterrence of aggression”, as described by the Yugoslav Navy. Their role was to act as a defense screen against any possible enemy invasion of the Adriatic coast.

The basic unit equipped with these vehicles was the Missile Battery. This battery consisted of only one vehicle, with two batteries forming a Missile Squadron, numbered from 201 to 205. These were then distributed to the islands and coastlines of the Adriatic sea in modern-day Croatia and Montenegro. The 201st was positioned on the isle of Mali Lošinj, 202nd on Visu, 203rd at Lastovu, and the last, the 204th, on Radovićima. The vehicles from the 205th Missile Squadron were stationed at Duvilama and were used for crew training and, if needed, as replacements.

A BROM during the 1984 military exercises. Source: A. Radić Arsenal 86

Design

The BROM was divided into a few different sections, which included the chassis, the command control cabin, and the rear positioned missile launcher.

Side view of the BROM. The rear positioned (to the left of the picture) missile launcher, the command cabin (center), and the front driver compartment are clearly visible. Source: www.mycity-military.com

The chassis

The BROM was built using a modified chassis of the MAZ-543 (and the slightly improved MAZ-543M) 8×8 wheel truck. This vehicle had been developed by MAZ in the early 1960s and entered mass production in 1965. It was powered by a forward mounted 525 hp@2,100 rpm D12A-525A 38.9 liter V12 diesel engine. Despite its large size, the MAZ-543 had excellent off-road capabilities. It could reach a maximum speed of 60 to 65 km/h and 25-30 km/h cross-country. The operational range was some 625 to 635 km.

The large MAZ-543 8×8 wheel truck. Source:www.trucksplanet.com

Armament

The main armament of the BROM consisted of two P-15M Termit missiles. These included the P-20 and P-21 sub-versions of the P-15M. The difference was that the P-20 was guided using radar, while the P-21 was guided using an infra-red signal. The BROM’s missiles had a length of 6.56 m, a diameter of 78 cm and a wingspan of 2.5 m. Their initial launch mass was some 2,523 kg.

During launch, the missiles were powered by a smaller auxiliary solid fuel rocket engine which had a thrust of 10 tons. After only 1.3 seconds, this auxiliary engine would be cast-off. The main engine of the P-15M missiles would begin to work half a second after launch. At the same time, two smaller wings would open. The main engine was fueled by a mix of TG-02 liquid fuel in combination with AK-20K nitric acid. The P-15M missiles could reach a maximum speed of 1,100 km/h (0.9 Mach). This speed could be achieved at a sea height of 25 to 50 m or 250 m over hard soil. The warhead consisted of 513 kg of explosives. The Soviets could also arm these missiles with a 15 kiloton nuclear warhead. The Yugoslavs did not have nuclear warheads. The missiles could be launched one after another, at an interval of between seven to nine seconds.

A P-15M during launching. Source www.mycity-military.com

Initially, the P-15M was powered by an auxiliary engine which would be discarded after launch. Source:www.mycity-military.com

Shortly after launch, the secondary engine would be discarded and the missiles would be powered by its main engine until it reached the target. Source: www.mycity-military.com

The maximum firing range of BROM missiles was about 80 km. This could be slightly increased up to 90 km with a reduced probability of hitting the target. The minimum operational range of these missiles depended on the altitude at which the BROM was located during firing. For example, at an altitude of 150 m, the minimum range was about 8 km. At 600 m, it was 18 km and at 800 m it was 22 km. Ideally, in order to achieve the best possible chance of hitting enemy targets, the BROM had to be as close to the coast as possible. If that was not the case for various reasons, the maximum distance from the coast had to be less than 19 km. The P-15M missiles could hit enemy targets with a speed of up to 80 knots and with a wind speed of 20 m/s.

Both missiles were stored in the large fully enclosed missile launcher bay (KT-161), which was placed to the rear of the vehicle. It consisted of two fully enclosed, pentagonal shaped launch bays. Inside of each of them, a ‘U’ shaped missile ramp was placed. In front and to the back of the launchers, four pyramid shaped cap covers were placed. During firing, these would be opened, moving to the top of the missile launcher compartment. In addition, there were several smaller inspection hatches across the launcher compartment. The firing missile point was actually located to the rear of the vehicle. When the vehicle was combat ready, depending on the combat situation, the missile launcher compartment could be rotated 110° either to the left or right side. The maximum elevation of this missile launcher was 20°. The dimension of the missile launcher bay length was 7 m, while the width was 1.8 m.

Close up view of the BROM missile launcher. Source: A. Radić Arsenal 86

Due to the P-15M’s heavy weight of some 2.5 tonnes, loading these missiles required extra equipment. Usually, a crane and a support platform was needed to effectively place the missiles in their housing. Source: Unknown

When reaching the designated area of deployment, the BROM needed some 2 to 5 minute to be combat ready. It depended on the experience training of the crew, but also on the geographical characteristics of the terrain.

Command control cabin

The command control cabin was located behind the front driver’s cabin. Four crew members were needed to effectively operate the missile system. They were tasked with operating a number of different systems, including pre-launch preparation, inspection of missile control systems, missile firing control, vehicle inclination measurement systems, communication equipment, etc.

For acquiring targets, the 3Ts-25 Harpun type radar was used. It was located above the command control room. When preparing for action, the radar antenna would be raised to a height of some 7.3 m with the help of a hydraulic arm. The maximum effective range of this radar was around 100 km when the vehicle was at an altitude of some 600 m. The BROM was fully capable of finding and firing at targets on its own. Depending on the combat situation, it could be linked to other external radar units.

During deployment, the radar would be raised up to 7 m in height with the help of a hydraulic arm. Source: A. Radić Arsenal 86

Power to the command control cabin was provided by a 100 hp strong turbo gas engine. In addition, there were two 32 kW direct and one 22 kW alternating current generators. As a backup power source, there was an additional direct current generator. With these, the BROM could effectively work on its own power up to a maximum of two hours.

Crew

The BROM had a crew of five which consisted of the commander, the driver, who was also the launcher operator, the electrician, the radar operator and the radar technician. The precise crew positions inside the command control cabin are not mentioned in the sources.

Crew inside the BROM command control cabin. Source: A. Radić Arsenal 86

Service during the Yugoslav Wars

During 1991, the disintegration of Yugoslavia was becoming a reality. In order to avoid losing the BROM vehicles, the Yugoslav Navy began an evacuation. The 201st and 205th Missile Squadrons were evacuated to Boka Kotorska (Montenegro) at the end of 1991. The 202nd and 203rd were evacuated during May 1992. The remaining 204th had been stationed in Montenegro prior to the war. One vehicle (22762) could not be recovered, as it was awaiting repairs at Šibenik at the time of the outbreak of the war and was captured by Croatian Forces. Luckily for the Yugoslav Navy, its vital electronic components and weapons were not present when it was captured. Its electronic components were also relocated to Montenegro and served as spare parts for the remaining vehicles. The precise fate of the Croatian captured vehicle is sadly not clear. Once all nine vehicles were relocated to Montenegro, these protected the newly created Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’s (Savezna Republika Jugoslavija) coastline from an anticipated NATO intervention that was expected to occur during summer of 1992, but which never came.

During 1994, the BROM units were reorganized, placing them all into the 110th Coast Missile Brigade (Obalska Raketna Brigada). The Brigade was divided into two Squadrons, with the first having five and the second four vehicles. In 1996, the BROMs were used during the ‘Laser 21’ military exercise. During these exercises, older torpedo boats were used as target practise.

Due to international military sanctions, the acquisition of new spare parts for the BROM was impossible. While smaller repairs could be done by the Brigade’s own mechanics, major overhauls had to be completed at the repair institute in Banja Luka. Some six vehicles received a major overhaul during 1998, with two more in early 1999.

During the 1999 war against NATO

In 1999, the tense situation in Kosovo and Metohija between the Serbian and Albanian population worsened to the point that the international community felt the need to intervene. The government of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia refused to allow foreign soldiers onto its territory. A war between Yugoslavia and NATO officially started on 24th March 1999. NATO Air Forces began bombing military targets like airfields, barracks and industrial centers, but civilian objectives were also targeted.

During this war, 8 BROM vehicles were fully operational. The ninth vehicle was under maintenance, awaiting repairs to its engine. These 8 were divided into two combat groups, with the task of preventing any possible NATO amphibious assault. One group was tasked with defending the Luštica Peninsula and its surroundings. The second group defended Petrovac-Bar. Some vehicles from this group were pulled back further inland.

Any reconnaissance and use of radar equipment had to be undertaken with great care due to NATO Air Supremacy. In general, the NATO ships that were patrolling in the Mediterranean did not come closer to 100 km from the Yugoslav shore. There was only one incident, when a NATO ship approached the shore accompanying a large non-military tanker. The crews of the BROM did not fire their missiles in order to avoid hitting the civilian ship. Despite its large size and huge NATO aerial advantage, no BROM vehicle was lost during the 1999 war.

Yugoslav soldiers posing in front of a BROM. Source:blogspot.com

The BROM was a huge vehicle and it was difficult to conceal. Despite its size and NATO’s air dominance, none were lost in combat during the Yugoslav Wars. Source: www.mycity-military.com

Final fate

In the years after the 1999 war, the condition of the technical equipment of the Yugoslav Army was generally poor due to a lack of funds. The BROMs were gradually becoming a hindrance, slowly losing their military importance. In early 2004, Serbian and Montenegrin Army officials decided to maintain only four such vehicles in operational use for the defense of the Adriatic coast. The remaining five were to be temporarily stored. These four were allocated to the 108th Coast Defence Brigade. To compensate for the reduced number of operational BROMs, the 108th Coast Defence Brigade was reinforced with towed artillery. Due to the limited budget and huge maintenance cost, seven of the vehicles were declared surplus equipment.

In March of 2004, it was decided to sell all BROM vehicles abroad if possible. A firm called Cofis Export was responsible for organizing this sale. Shortly after that, a contract was concluded with the Egyptian Navy, which bought five fully repaired and equipped vehicles. These were shipped to Egypt the following year. This shipment also contained a number of spare P-20 and P-21 rockets.

One of five BROMs prior to being shipped to Egypt. Source: A. Radić Arsenal 86

By 2006, the remaining two operational BROMs, in addition to the two vehicles that were stored at that time, were retired from service. This was done mainly due to huge financial cuts to the Army’s budget. That same year, Serbia and Montenegro split up, which essentially meant the end of the coastal defence forces, as Serbia no longer had a coast. In 2007, the remaining two operational vehicles were also sold to Egypt. Only two non-operational vehicles (22767 and 22768) were left, which were placed in storage at Lepetinima. If they will ever be put on display in a museum or scrapped is unknown.

Conclusion

The Yugoslav Army was always interested in acquiring new and modern equipment. While not always successful, they did manage to acquire the advanced BROM system in the late 1970s. They were kept under great secrecy. Following the collapse of Yugoslavia, they remained in service with the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. While this was an obscure and less known vehicle operated by the Yugoslav Navy, it nonetheless served for a long amount of time, covering the Adriatic coast from potential invasion.

Yugoslav Brom in the Egyptian service

Yugoslav 4K51 Rubezh known as BROM Baterija Raketa Obala-More

Another Brom in the Egyptian service with simpler camouflage

Specifications
Dimensions (L-W-H)	14.2 m, 2.97 m and 4.05 m
Total weight	40.1 tonnes
Crew	5 (Commander, driver/ launcher operator, electrician operator, radar operator and radar technician)
Propulsion	D12A-525A 520 hp engine
Speed (cross-country)	60-65 km/h, 25-30 km/h
Operational range	625-635 km
Armament	Two P-15M missile launchers

Sources

A. Radić (2014) Arsenal 86
Bojan B. Dumitrijević (2010), Modernizacija i intervencija, Jugoslovenske oklopne jedinice 1945-2006, Institut za savremenu istoriju
https://missilery.info/missile/rubeg
http://www.paluba.info/smf/index.php?topic=8657.0%3Bwap2&fbclid=IwAR0cN_GF5kKTUMvllrw0OQwSFL8Z9xMl6JadeQNAGYsMyOv6L76iQrYMRug
https://weaponsystems.net/system/139-4K51+Rubezh

Cold War Soviet Vehicles in Foreign Service Cold War Yugoslav Tanks Has Own Video

PT-76B in Yugoslav Service

Post author By MarkoPantelic
Post date September 4, 2021
No Comments on PT-76B in Yugoslav Service

A PT-76B with improvised anti-missile armor used during the Yugoslav Wars

Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1968)
Amphibious Light Tank – 63 Operated

During the 1960s, the Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija, JNA (Yugoslav People Army, YPA) wanted to replace their aging Second World War reconnaissance armored cars. Given the good military cooperation between the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia, it was logical for the JNA military to ask the Soviets for such equipment. By the late 1960s, an agreement was sought for purchasing 63 PT-76B amphibious light tanks. These would be used to reinforce the reconnaissance elements of many armored units. During the Yugoslav wars of the 1990s, these would see action mostly as fire support vehicles.

PT-76B in JNA service. Source:www.srpskioklop.paluba.info

The Need for a Reconnaissance Vehicle

In the years after the Second World War, the main reconnaissance vehicles of the JNA were the American-built M3A1 Scout Cars and M8 Armored Cars. These were clearly aging and outdated designs and not suited for more modern combat operations, having insufficient firepower and weak armor protection. On some occasions, Sherman or T-34-85 tanks were used to supplement the firepower of reconnaissance units. The JNA needed a more modern vehicle that had sufficient firepower and good speed to reinforce the reconnaissance elements of the armored formations.

For many years, the M3A1 Scout Cars and M8 Armored Cars were the main reconnaissance vehicles employed by the JNA. Source: www.srpskioklop.paluba.info

In the 1960s, JNA Army officials began negotiating with the Soviet Union to resolve this issue. As a provisional solution, small numbers of BRDM-1 reconnaissance armored cars were acquired. However, this only temporarily solved the critical lack the suitable vehicles. In 1965, JNA Army officials decided to try to procure the PT-76 amphibious light tank. While the necessary funds were allocated for this project, the final decision was postponed for the next year.

In early 1966, a delegation led by the commander of the Yugoslav Armored Formations, General Dušan Ćorković, arrived in the Soviet Union. In March 1966, another delegation arrived in the Soviet Union to finalize an agreement for the purchase of military equipment. Interestingly, during the initial negotiations, the Yugoslav delegation showed interest in buying the new BMP-1 infantry fighting vehicles, but nothing came from this. Eventually, the deal was struck for the purchase of 600 T-34-85 and 67 PT-76B tanks, although the number of PT-76Bs was eventually reduced to 63. As these vehicles began to arrive in late 1967, they would be first transported to the military base at Pančevo, near the Yugoslav capital of Belgrade. Officially the PT-76Bs were accepted into service on 25th April 1968.

The PT-76B was officially accepted into service in the JNA in April 1968. Source: www.srpskioklop.paluba.info

PT-76B

Work on a new Soviet amphibious light tank began shortly after the end of the Second World War. It was introduced to service in the early 1950s. The PT-76 had good amphibious capabilities. On the other hand, it was a relatively large target and had poor armor protection. Despite this, some 12,000 would be produced and would see widespread use in the Soviet Army (and later Russian army, up to 2006), as well as service aboard. During its service life, a number of modifications would be introduced in order to improve its overall performance and extend its operational service life. One of these included the PT-76B (original name PT-76 Model 1957), which incorporated changes such as an improved muzzle brake. This version would be exported to Yugoslav Army.

Soviet PT-76B amphibious light tank. Source: Wiki

Organization and distribution to first units

Once the PT-76Bs were available, they would be used to reinforce the reconnaissance companies of armored units. The basic unit was a Platoon that consisted of three PT-76Bs and was supported by a Platoon of BRDM-2 armored cars (also with three vehicles). These were mainly allocated to Armored Regiments in addition to the Armored and Mechanized Brigades. During its service life, the PT-76B was almost never issued in units greater than a Platoon. The only exception to this rule was the reconnaissance Battalion of the 7th Armored Division, which had in its inventory 7 PT-76B tanks. A few tanks were allocated to various training centers and schools.

The PT-76B in JNA service was to be used together with BRDM-2 armored cars. Three of each would be used for the reconnaissance battalions of armored units. Source: www.srpskioklop.paluba.info

Service Life

The PT-76B in JNA service kept the original Soviet dark green camouflage. In addition, it received five-digit numbers painted in white. These were usually painted on the turret sides.

In order to train new crews, the first vehicles were allocated to various training schools. Initial training programs were carried out with the help of Soviet instructors from 15th May to 15th August 1968 at the main training center in Banjaluka. After some experience was gained with operating the PT-76B tanks, it was possible for further training to be conducted with JNA instructors. The first local training was carried out on the Sava river and later at a specially designed military range at Manjača.

Side view of a JNA PT-76B. The white five-digit markings are visible. Source: www.srpskioklop.paluba.info

The PT-76B was frequently used during military exercises during the 1970s and 1980s. It would be also used during one of the largest military maneuvers ever undertaken in Yugoslavia, named ‘Sloboda 71’ (English: ‘Freedom’). These lasted from 2nd to 9th October 1971, and some 40,000 regular and territorial defense soldiers were present, together with large quantities of newly acquired equipment. This maneuver also had a political background. After the Prague Uprising in 1968, political tension in Europe was high. At that time, there was even some political turmoil in Yugoslavia, especially in Croatia. This potential quelling of political instability has often been cited as one of the main reasons why the Sloboda 71 maneuvers were actually carried out. The PT-76Bs were also present on a number of military parades held in the Yugoslav capital of Belgrade.

During the early 1990s, there was a huge military reorganization of the JNA known as Jedinstvo-2 (English: ‘Unity’). It was planned that the JNA would operate some 3,078 tanks during the following years, including 48 PT-76Bs.

A rear view of a PT-76B during a river crossing exercise. Source: www.srpskioklop.paluba.

Two rows of PT-76Bs during one of many military parades held in Belgrade. Source: www.srpskioklop.paluba.

Yugoslav Wars

During 1991, the tensions between the Yugoslav Federal Republics worsened to the point that open conflict erupted. The JNA was initially involved in preventing any larger military uprisings, which it ultimately failed to prevent. During 1992, the JNA initiated a general evacuation of its personnel and equipment to Serbia. Many of its vehicles had to be left behind, and they were often captured and reused by the various military and paramilitary organizations which were present in Croatia, Bosnia, and Herzegovina. The PT-76B, while a rare vehicle during this conflict due to the small number operated by the JNA, would be operated by all warring parties in Yugoslavia to a limited extent.

One of the first engagements of the PT-76B during the Yugoslav wars was as a part of the 1st Armored Brigade (which had three vehicles), which was stationed in Vrhnika, in Slovenia. A JNA armored column was advancing in the direction of Vrhnika-Ljubljana-Kranj at the end of June 1991. This group with three PT-76B was tasked with taking the Rateče border crossing and the Karavanke crossing. Shortly later, a brief engagement with the Slovenian territorial defence forces occurred at the Karavanke crossing. The PT-76B was used in this engagement. While one of them was hit (sources do not specify the weapon used), no damage was noted on it. After a few days, the JNA elements that participated in these operations surrendered to Slovenian forces and the three PT-76B were captured.

Two PT-76Bs during the brief war in Slovenia. Source: www.srpskioklop.paluba.

The Yugoslav collapse was chaotic in its nature, and this also reflected in the overall operation and use of equipment by the JNA. Despite being intended to fulfill the role of reconnaissance, during the Yugoslav wars, the PT-76Bs were used in certain combat situations for which it was never indeed to. For example, the PT-76Bs were often used to spearhead attacks either in urban centers or against fortified positions. Being lightly armored, the choice of these vehicles to lead an assault verged on suicidal. On one such occasion, a PT-76B was destroyed during an attack on the village of Jankovci.

Due to general confusion and chaos prevalent during the Yugoslav wars, the PT-76B was never used in its intended role. It was mostly used as a mobile long-range or even close-range fire support vehicle, roles which it was not meant to cover. Source: www.srpskioklop.paluba.

The use of large amounts of anti-tank weapons, close proximity to the frontline, and, in many cases, hilly terrain prevented the PT-76B from performing its original task as a reconnaissance vehicle. For these reasons, the PT-76B was mostly used as a fire support vehicle. It is also unknown if the PT-76B was ever used in any offensive amphibious assault during the war.

Anti-tank weapons, which were either captured from the JNA or even received from outside of Yugoslavia, caused huge problems to any armored vehicles. To protect themselves, crews of many tanks, including PT-76Bs, often added improvised additional armor. This basically consisted of whatever was at hand (storage boxes, spare tires, rubber, etc).

A PT-76B with improvised anti-missile armor. The use of improvised armor during the Yugoslav wars was relatively common. Its general effectiveness is unclear, with some sources mentioning that it was effective in some cases. Source: www.srpskioklop.paluba.

The majority of PT-76Bs would be used by the JNA and later the new Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Army. The Slovenian forces managed to capture some 3 vehicles. Croatian armored forces captured at least 10 such vehicles during 1991, which then saw action during the war. A few, possibly up to four, PT-76Bs were operated by the Army of the Srpska Krajina. Lastly, some 9 to 11 (depending on the source) vehicles were used by the Army of the Republika Srpska.

A PT-76B from the Army of the Republika Srpska during the war. Source: www.srpskioklop.paluba.

A video of the PT-76Bs of the Army of the Republika Srpska.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dX-KHfOoTZw

Final Fate

Following the conclusion of the Yugoslav wars, in 1996, an agreement for the reduction of arms and weapons was signed by all sides. With this agreement, most of the older equipment was declared surplus and, in many cases, scrapped. The new Yugoslav Army still had over 30 PT-76B light tanks in its inventory. The majority of these, some 33, would be scrapped in 1997 (or 1996 depending on the source). The few vehicles in the Army of the Republika Srpska were also scrapped later in 2000. Croatian and Slovenian vehicles were also mostly removed from service by the war’s end.

Beside a few vehicles that were put in museums or in storage, most ended like this one, being scrapped. Source: www.srpskioklop.paluba.info

A New Chance

The Army Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, while scrapping the majority of the PT-76Bs, preserved some turrets. Based on the experience from the Yugoslav wars, the Army wanted to develop and build a number of small fire support boats. These were to be armed with one PT-76B turret each. This plan never materialized, mostly due to a lack of funds and political will. In 1999 and 2000, there were new proposals to revive the project, but ultimately, nothing came from this, and the fate of these turrets is not clear. They were likely scrapped.

The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Army planned to build fire support boats. This was based on the experience of the War, but also on the usage of such ships by the Soviets years before. Source: /wio.ru/fleet/ww2armorb.htm

Surviving Vehicles

At least two PT-76s are now preserved in Serbia. Both are placed in Army storage, with one in Žarkovo and the second in Kačarevo. Another one is located in Bosnia and Herzegovina, in the Kozara museum. One more is located in the Slovenian Museum in Pivka and a few more are located in Croatia.

The surviving PT-76B in the Kozara museum in Banja Luka. Source: www.srpskioklop.paluba.info

Slovenian PT-76B at the Pivka Museum. Source:www.parkvojaskezgodovine.si

Conclusion

The PT-76B was operated by the JNA in quite small numbers compared with other tanks imported from the Soviet Union. By the time of the Yugoslav 1990s wars, it was a rare vehicle and would see little use. It would mostly be employed as mobile artillery and never saw combat in its original intended role.

A PT-76B with improvised anti-missile armor used during the Yugoslav wars

The PT-76B in JNA Service

PT-76B specifications
Dimensions (L-w-h)	7.62 x 3.14 x 2.55 m
Total weight, battle-ready	14.4 tonnes
Crew	3 (Commander, Loader, and Driver)
Propulsion	V-6, 6 cylinder in-line, 4-stroke, water-cooled diesel, outputting 240 hp@ 1800 rpm
Speed	44 km/h, 10-12 km/h (cross country), 10-11 (on water)
Range	400 km, 100 km (on water)
Primary Armament	Armament: 76.2 mm D-56TM
Elevation Armament	7.62 mm SGMT

Armor	6-15 mm
Number operated	63

Sources

A. Radić (2014) Arsenal 83
B. B. Dumitrijević (2010), Modernizacija i intervencija, Jugoslovenske oklopne jedinice 1945-2006, Institut za savremenu istoriju
B. Gregurić and V. Jereb (2001) Croatian Army Vehicles 1991-1995, Sveučilišna Knjižnica Rijeka
P. Trewhitt (1999) Armored Fighting Vehicles, Grange Book.
http://www.srpskioklop.paluba.info/
https://www.parkvojaskezgodovine.si/plavajoci-tank-pt-76/

Cold War Soviet Vehicles in Foreign Service Cold War Yugoslav Armor Has Own Video

ZSU-57-2 in Yugoslav Service

Post author By MarkoPantelic
Post date July 27, 2020
3 Comments on ZSU-57-2 in Yugoslav Service

Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Successor States (1963-2006)
Self-Propelled Anti-Aircraft Vehicle – 120-125 Operated

In a search to equip its army with modern anti-aircraft vehicles, the JNA (Jugoslovenska narodna armija, Yugoslav People’s Army) High Command decided to negotiate the purchase of over 100 copies of the Soviet ZSU-57-2. These vehicles arrived in the 1960s and would be used to equip armored and tank brigades. The ZSU-57-2 would see action during the chaotic Yugoslav wars in the 1990s. A few vehicles would remain in service up to 2005 in the Serbian Army (Vojska Srbije) and 2006 in the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Oružane snage Bosne i Hercegovine) before finally being retired from service.

History

After the Second World War, the long process of building and rearming the new Yugoslav People’s Army was underway. Despite attempts to develop domestic tanks, this was not possible, so the JNA was forced to acquire new equipment from abroad. Initially, the Soviet Union was the main supplier. However, during the so-called Tito-Stalin split that started in 1948, the JNA turned to Western countries and managed to sign the MDAP (Mutual Defence Aid Program) with the United States. Thanks to MDAP, the JNA received, during 1951-1958, plenty of new military equipment, including a small number of M15 anti-aircraft half-tracks. The JNA also made a few of its own anti-aircraft vehicles by mounting captured German anti-aircraft guns, mostly 20 mm ones, on any available trucks. While the M15 was a properly designed military vehicle, it was still outdated by the fifties. The truck versions were simple modifications and, in reality, of little combat value as they had no armor protection nor sophisticated tracking sights. The truck version appears to have been used only in military parades.

For nearly a decade, these vehicles were the only mobile anti-aircraft vehicles available in the JNA. For this reason, JNA officials were desperate to find more modern anti-aircraft vehicles. As the political tensions with the Soviet Union began to relax after Stalin’s death in 1953, the possibility of purchasing new Soviet military equipment emerged again. For this reason, during the early sixties, the JNA managed to buy over 100 Soviet ZSU-57-2 anti-aircraft vehicles. Ironically, in their desperation to find more modern anti-aircraft vehicles, the JNA actually bought a vehicle that was already becoming obsolete even during its introduction to the Soviet army.

A column of JNA trucks armed with pairs of 20 mm cannons. Source: Unknown

This version was equipped with a German 2 cm drilling MG 151. Source: Unknown

For some years, the M15 was the most ‘modern’ mobile AA vehicle in the JNA arsenal, until it was replaced with the Soviet ZSU-57-2. Source: https://www.srpskioklop.paluba.info/

Soviet ZSU-57-2

The ZSU-57-2 was designed by the artillery designer Vasiliy Grabin shortly after World War II. The first prototype was completed in the summer of 1950 and the production began in 1955. ZSU stands for Zenitnaya Samokhodnaya Ustanovka (anti-aircraft self-propelled mount) and 57-2 stands for the fact that it was armed with two 57 mm cannons. This vehicle was built using a modified chassis of the new T-54 tank. The modification of the chassis included reducing the road wheels per side to four and using lighter armor.

On top of the T-54 chassis, a new open-top turret was added. This turret was powered by an electric motor with hydraulic speed gears. The turret traverse speed was 36° per second. Inside this turret, two 57 mm S-68 cannons (L76.6) were mounted. Each cannon had a rate of fire of 240 rounds per minute. For these guns, both fragmentation and armor-piercing ammunition were available. The ammunition load was 300 rounds, with 176 rounds being stored inside the turret and the remaining in the hull. The effective range, when used against flying targets, was 6 km. To efficiently operate the vehicle, six crew members were needed: commander, gunner, loader, driver, and two sight adjusters.

The ZSU-57-2 was powered by a V-54 12-cylinder diesel engine providing 520 hp. Despite the weight of 28 tonnes, thanks to the strong engine, the maximum speed was 50 km/h. With a fuel load of 850 liters, the operational range was 420 km.

The ZSU-57-2 had serious firepower that could easily destroy any aerial target but had many issues. The greatest weaknesses were the lack of modern range-finding and radar equipment, the impossibility of engaging targets at night, the lack of protection for its crew (being open-topped), and low ammunition count. While many would be sold to other Warsaw Pact countries, like East Germany, Romania, and Poland, its service within the Soviet Army was limited. By the end of the fifties, it was mostly replaced with the ZSU-23-4.

The Soviet ZSU-57-2 Source: Wikimedia Commons

In JNA Service

In October 1962, a JNA military delegation was sent to the Soviet Union to negotiate the purchase of new military supplies and equipment. During this visit, the Soviets presented the ZSU-57-2 to the Yugoslav delegation. The delegation was highly interested in it and, during the following month, an agreement was reached for the purchase of 40 vehicles and 50,000 rounds of ammunition. The price for each vehicle, with two spare barrels, was US$80,000. By the end of 1963, the shipment of the first group was completed. The following year, 16 more vehicles were purchased, followed by 69 in 1965, for a total of 125 vehicles (or 120 depending on the source).

The Soviets were somewhat confused when the JNA delegation asked for more ZSU-57-2 vehicles during 1965. While the Soviets were willing to sell their older and obsolete equipment, there were no more ZSU-57-2s available. By that time, the majority of the ZSU-57-2s were either sold or given to the Warsaw Pact Allies, with a small number preserved for military parades.

This was the first vehicle supplied, which was used for evaluation testing. Source: http://www.srpskioklop.paluba.info/zsu57/opis.html

Due to the small number acquired by the JNA, the ZSU-57-2 was used to equip Armored Brigades, Armored Regiments, and Tank Brigades with smaller numbers used as training vehicles. The Armored Brigades and Regiments were each equipped with six ZSU-57-2 and one M3A1 scout armored car that served as a command vehicle. Tank Brigades were equipped with two batteries of four vehicles each.

During the seventies, the JNA anti-aircraft units were equipped with more modern Strela-1M surface-to-air missile system vehicles. For this reason, new mixed anti-aircraft units were formed, which consisted of two 12 vehicle batteries of ZSU-57-2s and one 6-vehicle Strela-1M battery.

During its nearly 30-year long career in the JNA, no attempts were ever made to increase the effectiveness of this vehicle. While more modern equipment was eventually acquired (like 30 mm Praga vehicles), the ZSU-57-2 would be never truly replaced. While there were plans that by the year 2000, all available anti-aircraft vehicles would be replaced by 40 mm caliber weapon systems, due to a lack of funds and the breakup of Yugoslavia, this was never achieved. Prior to the breakup of Yugoslavia, the ZSU-57-2 was never used in any combat operations and was mostly used in military exercises and some parades.

ZSU-57-2 during firing exercises. Source: http://www.srpskioklop.paluba.info/zsu57/opis.html

A trio of ZSU-57-2 during the military exercise in 1972. Source: http://www.srpskioklop.paluba.info/zsu57/opis.html

A ZSU-57-2 at the Šepurine Military base. This picture was taken in 1972. Source: http://www.srpskioklop.paluba.info/zsu57/opis.html

A ZSU-57-2 crossing a river. Source: http://www.srpskioklop.paluba.info/zsu57/opis.html

Two ZSU-57-2 on a military parade in Belgrade Source: http://www.balkanwarhistory.com/2017/04/the-zsu-57-2-in-service-of-yugoslav.html

During the Yugoslav Wars

At the start of the Yugoslav war, in 1991, there were still 110 operational ZSU-57-2 vehicles. Due to their small numbers, they were quite uncommon on the battlefields. In most cases, individual vehicles were used in combat, while, in rarer cases, small units were formed as supporting elements for other units. As the usage of aviation in the Yugoslav war was limited on all sides, the ZSU-57-2 was often used in a fire support role. Thanks to its firepower and high elevation, it could be used effectively against enemy forces that were hiding in larger buildings during urban combat. The best example of this can be seen during the Croatian attempt to storm the JNA anti-aircraft school center in Zadar. The Croatian forces were taking firing positions in the surrounding buildings. Thanks to the ZSU-57-2’s high elevation, these could be quickly neutralized by short bursts. Another example was the use of the single ZSU-57-2, nicknamed by its crew ‘Strava’ (Eng: ‘horror’ or ‘dread’), belonging to the 2nd Ozren Brigade operating in the Krivaja valley. There, the ZSU-57-2 proved to be an excellent support vehicle in engaging the enemy forces in the hilly terrain. In July 1995, forces of Republica Srpska, with support of a few ZSU-57-2s, engaged the Bosnian 28th Division. One ZSU-57-2 was destroyed and one was captured and immediately put to use by the Bosnian forces against the former user.

While the majority of the ZSU-57-2 SPAAGs would be operated by the JNA and Republika Srpska armies, smaller numbers would be captured by Croatian and Slovenian forces as well. In an attempt to increase protection, at least one vehicle used by the army of the Republika Srpska was equipped with a top cover. In addition, this vehicle had several spare ammunition boxes added to the front glacis armor.

During the war, the Serbs force used a number of ZSU-57-2. On at least one vehicle, they added makeshift armor on the vehicle top. Source: Wikimedia Commons

After the war

After the war, the ZSU-57-2 was operated for a limited time by the former Yugoslav Republics of Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia/Republika Srpska. After the withdrawal of the JNA forces from Slovenia, some 22 ZSU-57-2 SPAAGs were left behind. These remained in use by the Slovenian Army up to the end of the 1990s, when all were removed from service. The Croatians managed to capture a few ZSU-57-2s during the war, but their use after the war was probably limited. The Republika Srpska operated a small number of such vehicles. In 2006, the Army of Bosnia and Republika Srpska were united into a single Army force. At that time, there were 6 ZSU-57-2s which were withdrawn from service.

The ZSU-57-2 remained in use for the longest time within the new SRJ (Federal Republic of Yugoslavia – Savezna Republika Jugoslavija) Army. The depleted number of ZSU-57-2s would again see combat action during the NATO intervention in Yugoslavia in 1999. By that time only two units, the 36th and 252nd Armored Brigades, still operated the ZSU-57-2. The 36th Armored Brigade was tasked with defending a 70 km long defense line from any possible NATO advance through Hungary or Croatia. Its ZSU-57-2 was used in the anti-aircraft defense of Northern Serbia against the NATO bombing raids. Due to extensive NATO aviation operations in this area, the 36th Armored Brigade used a large number of dummy wooden mockups, false firing positions, tank engine temperature imitation techniques, or other improvisations in order to fool NATO forces. While the ZSU-57-2, due to their general obsolescence, did not have any success against NATO aviation, the 36th Armored Brigade did manage to preserve almost all of its equipment.

The second unit to use this vehicle was the 252nd Armored Brigade initially stationed at the city of Kraljevo. When NATO started a bombing campaign against Yugoslavia the 252nd Armored Brigade was surprisingly moved by train to Kosovo and Metohija. There the unit reported having problems with the equipment and vehicles that were previously placed in storage. By the end of the 1999 war, only one ZSU-57-2 was lost.

Some 32 vehicles were reported to be still operational by 2005. By that time, they were deemed obsolete and all were eventually scrapped.

ZSU-57-2 belonging to the 36th Armored Brigade during the 1999 Yugoslav war. Source: http://www.srpskioklop.paluba.info/zsu57/opis.html

Surviving vehicles

While over 100 were purchased from the Soviet Union, only a few have survived to this day. One can be found in the Bosnian Military Barracks in Banja Luka. At least two are in Slovenia, with one at the Pivka Military History Park. A ZSU-57-2 is in the Military Museum in Vukovar, Croatia. Remains of damaged ZSU-57-2s were located in Kosovo and Metohija.

The ZSU-57-2 from Banja Luka Source: http://www.srpskioklop.paluba.info/zsu57/opis.html

The Croatian ZSU-57-2. Source: Wikimedia Commons

Conclusion

Ironically, in the search for a modern anti-aircraft vehicle, the JNA actually obtained the obsolete ZSU-57-2. Until being supplemented by Praga anti-aircraft vehicles, the ZSU-57-2 represented the backbone of the JNA mobile anti-aircraft defense. Unfortunately, though intended to protect Yugoslavia from any external air force threats, it saw action against the people it was intended to defend. During the breakup of Yugoslavia, despite the small numbers available, the ZSU-57-2s would nevertheless see combat action in a new role of fire support vehicles. While of little combat value in contrast to other more modern and radar-equipped SPAAGs, it nevertheless had an exceptionally long career of over 40 years.

Croatian ZSU-57-2, now preserved

Serbian ZSU-57-2 in the 1990s. These were modified with extra storage acting as armour and fitted with a hard top made of armour plates.

Slovenian ZSU-57-2

Source

M. Guardia (2015) Self-Propelled Anti-Aircraft Guns Of The Soviet Union, Osprey Publishing.
P. Trewhitt (1999) Armoured Fighting vehicles, Amber Books.
B. B. Dumitrijević and D. Savić (2011) Oklopne jedinice na Jugoslovenskom ratištu, Institut za savremenu istoriju, Beograd.
B. B. Dumitrijević (2010), Modernizacija i intervencija, Jugoslovenske oklopne jedinice 1945-2006, Institut za savremenu istoriju, Beograd.
B. B. Dumitrijević (2015) Vek Srpske Protibbazdušne Odbrane, Odbrana.
Surviving ZSU-57-2 Self-Propelled Anti-Aircraft Guns
Arsenal 81-90 Magazine 2014.
http://www.srpskioklop.paluba.info/zsu57/opis.html

ZSU-57-2 specifications
Dimensions (L-w-h)	8.5 x 3.23 x 2.75 m
Total weight, battle ready	28 tonnes
Crew	6 (commander, gunner, loader, driver and two sight adjusters)
Propulsion	520 HP V-54 twelve-cylinder diesel engine
Speed	50 km/h, 30 km/h (cross country)
Range	420 km, 320 km (cross country)
Armament	2 x 57 mm S68 autocannons
Elevation	-5° to +80°
Traverse	360°
Armor	Up to 15 mm
Total production	2020+

Pansarbandvagn 501

T-72 Ural-1 in Romanian Service

T-54B in Malian Service

4K51 Rubezh in Romanian Service

T-62 in Algerian Service and T-62-Berezhok Conversion

PT-76 in Malian Service

GT-MU Fire Support Vehicle

BMP-1A1 Ost and BMP-1 in Reunified German Service

Baterija Raketa Obala-More “BROM” (4K51 Rubezh in Yugoslav Service)

PT-76B in Yugoslav Service

ZSU-57-2 in Yugoslav Service

Kingdom of Sweden (1994-2008) Infantry Fighting Vehicle – 5 BMP-1s Purchased For Trials, 350 Purchased For Service And Modernized, 83 Purchased For Spare Parts (438 Total)

The Swedish Army and Mechanization in the Early 1990s

The German BMPs

Sweden Tests the BMP-1

Turning BMPs Into Pbvs

Bringing the Vehicle to Western Standards

Safety Features Limiting the Vehicle’s Armament

Stripbv 5011 Command Vehicles

Deliveries and Disappointments

In and Out

Iraq Unsheathes the EXCALIBUR Pbv 501s

Into the Iraqi Army

Conclusion – The Convoluted Fate of German BMPs

Pansarbandvagn 501 Specifications

Sources

Socialist Republic of Romania/Romania (1978-2005) Main Battle Tank – 31 Purchased from USSR

Background

T-72 Ural-1

Operation – the 1st Tank Regiment “Vlad Țepeș”

T-72 at the Revolution – Petty Combat

Post-1989 & Dissolution

114th Tank Battalion “Petru Cercel”

TR-125 (P-125)

Type 64

Conclusion

T-72 Ural-1 in Romanian service specifications

Sources

Republic of Mali (Likely 1970s-Present) Main Battle Tank – 12 Operated

The T-54, Workhorse of the Eastern Bloc

The Unclear Export to Mali

Operational Service

Camouflage, Commemorative Name, and Their Evolution

Absence of the T-54s in the Current Malian Conflict and their Role in the Malian Army

Conclusion – Mali’s Agonizing Giants

Sources

Socialist Republic of Romania/Romania (1987-2024) Anti-Ship Coastal Defense Missile System – 4 Purchased

Background, the P-15 Termit in Romania

4K51 missile system

P-15M (P-21 & P-22)

Organization

Camouflage

Raytheon Replacement – NSM

4K51 Rubezh missile system in Romanian service specifications

Sources

People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria (1977-Present) Main Battle Tank – 330 Delivered

An Army Running On Soviet Gear: The Rise of the ANP’s Armored Forces

The T-62

The T-62 in Algeria

The T-62 Throughout the Years: Myths, Modernizations, and Exports

Conversion to Fire Support Vehicles

The Vehicles Are Unveiled

The Berezhok Turret

Conclusion – A Potentially Potent Modernization, Yet to Enter Service

Sources

Republic of Mali (1975-Present) Amphibious Light Tank – 20 Received

The PT-76 Arrives in Mali

Operational Service

Camouflage and Markings

Vehicles of Questionable Operability

Conclusion – Mali’s Ageing Light Tanks

Sources

Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic (2018 At The Latest-Present) Fire Support Vehicle – At Least 3 Converted

The GT-MU Multi-Purpose Vehicle

The GT-MU in the Transnistrian Army

The Fire-Support GT-MU

Conclusion – A Weapon of Circumstance

GT-MU Fire Support Vehicle Specifications

Sources

Federal Republic of Germany (1991-1994) Infantry Fighting Vehicle – 764 BMP-1 Operated, Around 580 Upgraded Into BMP-1A1

Kingdom of Sweden (1994-2008)
Infantry Fighting Vehicle – 5 BMP-1s Purchased For Trials, 350 Purchased For Service And Modernized, 83 Purchased For Spare Parts (438 Total)

Socialist Republic of Romania/Romania (1978-2005)
Main Battle Tank – 31 Purchased from USSR

Republic of Mali (Likely 1970s-Present)
Main Battle Tank – 12 Operated

Socialist Republic of Romania/Romania (1987-2024)
Anti-Ship Coastal Defense Missile System – 4 Purchased

People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria (1977-Present)
Main Battle Tank – 330 Delivered

Republic of Mali (1975-Present)
Amphibious Light Tank – 20 Received

Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic (2018 At The Latest-Present)
Fire Support Vehicle – At Least 3 Converted

Federal Republic of Germany (1991-1994)
Infantry Fighting Vehicle – 764 BMP-1 Operated, Around 580 Upgraded Into BMP-1A1

Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Successor States (1979-2007)
Anti-Ship Coastal Defense Missile System – 10 Purchased

Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1968)
Amphibious Light Tank – 63 Operated

Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Successor States (1963-2006)
Self-Propelled Anti-Aircraft Vehicle – 120-125 Operated